Management of training and competitive processes in sports (as in any other type of activity) consists of three stages: 1) collection of information, 2) its analysis and 3) decision-making (planning). The collection of information is usually carried out in the process integrated control, the object of which is, first of all, the athlete himself and the work performed by him.
There are quite a few indicators suitable for assessing the volume of physical activity. These include, for example, the distances covered by the Athlete when performing physical exercise, the number of training days (lessons, hours), combinations and elements, Fights and approaches to the apparatus.
The indicators of the intensity of the load are just as diverse: the speed of performing cyclic exercises, the number of elements (combinations, approaches) performed per unit of time, the average weight of the bar, etc.
Load volume control. There seem to be only two generalized load volume indicators suitable for use in all sports without exception: 1) the time spent on training and competitive activity (number of hours, days, weeks, etc.) and 2) the amount training sessions (cycles, stages, periods, etc.).
In cyclic sports, widespread are, firstly, the total volume of specialized load (in km), and, secondly, the so-called partial volumes of training loads.
Training work in running, skiing, rowing is not as diverse as in games, martial arts, gymnastics, however, specialized and non-specialized exercises are also used here. The time spent on their implementation is recorded separately, and when summing up, the partial volumes of the specific and non-specific load are analyzed. The ratio of partial volumes calculated after this is an informative indicator when comparing the load both at different stages of training (preparatory, competitive), and among athletes of different qualifications (or among the same athlete as his sports qualifications increase).
Intensity of execution training exercises in different occupations can vary significantly. In turn, this variability will affect the magnitude and direction of the urgent and delayed training effects. Much attention has always been paid to solving the problem of classifying loads depending on the intensity of their implementation.
In the classifications of loads in different sports, the ideas of V.S.Farfel and N.I. Volkov are implemented
Recovery zone exercises are used as a means of active recovery. The parameters of the physical and physiological indicators of this zone are small, and such a load practically does not have a developmental effect even on the body of an athlete of average qualification.
The loads of the second zone are aimed at maintaining the achieved level of fitness, as well as at the development and improvement of aerobic mechanisms of energy production (on the level of which, as you know, efficiency and general endurance depend). As you can see from the table. 26, the magnitude of the responses of the leading systems of the body in this zone is small. The magnitude of the combined load (as the product of physical and physiological) confirms the moderation of functional shifts.
In the third zone, which F.P.Suslov calls "developing", exercises are used to develop aerobic and anaerobic mechanisms of energy production. During such work, the concentration of lactic acid in the blood rises, which indicates the activation of glycolysis. However, in general, its level is low and the values of indicators of acid-base balance ( NS and BE) indicate that, in terms of the directionality of the load, this zone should be classified as aerobic.
Exercises of the fourth zone - the zone of "economization" - are aimed at the integrated development of all leading this exercise motor qualities, as well as to improve the specific working capacity of runners. It can be seen that O2 consumption reaches its maximum level, and this indicates the limiting stress of the aerobic supply systems.
Submaximal loads of the fifth zone are aimed at improving speed endurance. The tension of the systems of aerobic energy production is close to the maximum, and at the same time, glycolysis sharply increases. The work in this area is very difficult: the rapidly increasing concentration of lactic acid inhibits aerobic mechanisms energy products. However, the selection of optimal intervals of rest between attempts can reduce the adverse consequences for the body of such work.
The "maximum" loads of the sixth zone are aimed at developing and improving the speed qualities and speed endurance of athletes. The role of aerobic processes as energy suppliers decreases sharply, but anaerobic alactate energy production increases just as sharply, reaching its maximum in this zone.
The versatility of F.P.Suslov's classification of loads allows us to consider it as a basic one for cyclic sports. With this approach, the assessment of the focus of specialized and non-specialized training means becomes exactly the same. This not only simplifies the calculations, but also makes it possible to assess the total impact of all training exercises on the most important systems of the body. For example, let us consider the classification of loads in rowing proposed by AF Sass (1975) (Table 27).
It can be seen that the urgent training effect of any of the load zones is determined by its components and, first of all, by the rowing pace. An increase in the latter naturally leads to an increase in the speed of the boat and a decrease in the time it takes to travel the standard distance.
The classification of specific loads of skiers-racers includes four zones: light, medium, strong and extreme (N.A.Koryagin, 1968). In the light zone, the duration of work should exceed 6 hours, and the intensity of the functioning of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems should be at the level of 50-60% of the maximum. Work in the limit zone according to this classification can last no more than 2 minutes; in this case, pulmonary ventilation will be equal to 130-140 l / min, heart rate - 190 beats / min, O2 consumption is close to the maximum (and 4-5 times less than the O2 request).
Competitive load is understood as the number of competitions and starts in which the athlete participated at a certain stage of preparation.
The assessment of the volume of the competitive load has become especially important in connection with the increase in the number of competitions, which is typical for all sports.
1) the number of competitions per stage;
2) the number of starts in these competitions.
the duration of the stage can be different, but most often it is equal to half a year or a year. In different sports, the indicators of the competitive load are not the same.
When assessing the competitive load, it is necessary to take into account the number of main and lead events separately.
Competitive exercise load should be the basis for the selection and distribution of training exercises. Therefore, it is necessary to know the structure of a competitive exercise and the factors that determine its result. Such information allows not only to manage the training process at the moment; it becomes possible to predict the requirements that the load of a competitive exercise will impose on the body of athletes with results exceeding world records.
The load of a competitive exercise, like any other, can be assessed from the "external" (physical load) and from the "internal" (physiological load) side. In cyclic sports, it is not difficult to determine its physical and physiological parameters, For example, in the 200 m sprint maximum speed the strongest athletes exceed 11.5 m / s, and the concentration of lactic acid in the blood after running a distance reaches 200 mg% (NI Volkov, 1968). Similar indicators for running at 400 m, 800 m and 1500 m are respectively equal: 9 m / s and 227 mg%, 8 m / s and 211 mg%, 7 m / s and 163 mg%.
| - This is the effect of physical exercises on the athlete's body, causing an active reaction of his functional systems.- This is an intense, often maximum load associated with the performance of competitive activity. |
Rice. 10. The reaction of the body of athletes of different qualifications to the maximum load of 1-master sports; 2-athlete 2 category
Duration and nature of rest intervals.
The duration of the rest intervals is the factor that, along with the intensity of work, determines its predominant focus.
The duration of the rest intervals should be planned depending on the tasks and the training method used. For example, in interval training aimed at predominantly increasing aerobic performance, you should focus on rest intervals at which the heart rate decreases to 120-130 bpm. This makes it possible to cause shifts in the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems, which in the greatest measure contribute to an increase in the functional capabilities of the heart muscle.
When planning the amount of rest between repetitions of an exercise or different exercises within the framework of one lesson, three types of intervals should be distinguished.
Full (ordinary) intervals, guaranteeing, by the time of the next repetition, practically the same restoration of working capacity, which was before its previous execution, which makes it possible to repeat the work without additional stress of functions.
Tense (incomplete) intervals, at which the next load falls on the state of some under-restoration of working capacity.
"Minimax" - interval. This is the smallest interval of rest between exercises, after which there is an increased working capacity (supercompensation), which occurs under certain conditions due to the regularities of the recovery process.
When training strength, speed and dexterity, repeated loads are usually combined with full and "minimax" intervals. All types of rest intervals are used in endurance training.
By the nature of the athlete's behavior, rest between individual exercises can be active and passive. With passive rest, the athlete does not perform any work, with active rest, he fills in the pauses with additional activity. The effect of active rest depends primarily on the nature of fatigue: it is not detected with light previous work and gradually increases with an increase in its intensity. Low-intensity work in pauses has the greater positive effect, the higher the intensity of the previous exercises was.
Compared to the intervals of rest between exercises, the intervals of rest between classes have a more significant effect on the processes of recovery, long-term adaptation of the body to training loads.
Section 3. Process Design Basics sports training
3.1. Sports training as a long-term process and its structure
3.2. Building a workout in small cycles (microcycles)
3.3. Building a workout in medium cycles (mesocycles)
3.4. Building a workout in large cycles (macrocycles)
3.1. Sports training as a long-term process and its structure
Athletes training process highly qualified can be roughly divided into three interrelated components: the construction of the process, its implementation and control over the course of preparation.
V the process of building sports training the integrity of the training process is ensured on the basis of a certain structure, which is a relatively stable order of combining components (subsystems, parties and individual links), their regular relationship with each other and a general sequence.
The training structure is characterized in particular by:
the order of the relationship between the elements of the training content (means, methods of general and special physical, tactical and technical training etc.);
necessary ratio of parameters training load(its quantitative and quality characteristics volume and intensity);
a certain sequence of various links of the training process ( individual classes and their parts, stages, periods, cycles), representing the phases or stages of this process, during which the training process undergoes regular changes.
 |
Rice. 11. a-approximate structure of the multi-year preparation process;
b-conditional level of opposing achievements
Depending on the time scale within which the training process takes place, there are: a) microstructure - the structure of an individual training session, the structure of a separate training day and a microcycle (eg, weekly); b) mesostructure - the structure of training stages, including a relatively complete series of microcycles (total duration, for example, about a month); c) macrostructure - the structure of large training cycles such as semi-annual, annual and long-term.
The long-term process of sports training from a beginner to the heights of mastery can be represented in the form of successively alternating large stages, including separate stages years of preparation related to the age and qualification indicators of athletes.
It should be noted that in individual sports there are no clear boundaries between the stages and stages of a multi-year process, as well as strict time frames for these stages and stages.
Rational construction long-term sports training is carried out on the basis of taking into account the following factors: optimal age limits, within which the highest results are usually achieved in the chosen sport; the length of systematic training to achieve these results; the predominant focus of training at each stage of long-term training; passport age at which the athlete started training, and biological age at which the special training began; individual characteristics of an athlete and the growth rate of his skill.
The long-term process of training and competition of an athlete is based on the following methodological provisions.
1. A unified pedagogical system that ensures the rational continuity of tasks, means, methods, organizational forms of training for all age groups... The main criterion for the effectiveness of long-term training is the highest sports result achieved in the optimal age range for a given sport.
2. Target orientation in relation to higher sportsmanship in the training process for all age groups.
3. The optimal ratio (proportionality) of various aspects of an athlete's readiness in the process of long-term training.
4. A steady growth in the volume of means of general and special training, the ratio between which is gradually changing. From year to year, the proportion of the volume of special training means increases in relation to the total volume of the training load and, accordingly, the proportion of the general training decreases.
5. Progressive increase in the volume and intensity of training and competitive loads. Each period of the next annual cycle should begin and end at a higher level of training loads compared to the corresponding periods of the previous annual cycle.
6. Strict adherence to gradualism in the process of using training and competitive loads, especially in classes with children, adolescents, since all-round readiness is steadily increasing only if the training and competitive loads at all stages of the long-term process fully correspond to his biological age and individual capabilities athlete.
7. Simultaneous parenting physical qualities athletes at all stages of long-term training and the predominant development of individual qualities in the age periods most favorable for this. In school years, there are opportunities for the development of all physical qualities, if an effective pedagogical influence is provided, which, however, should not fundamentally change the patterns of age-related development of certain aspects of a person's motor function.
Table 12 shows the approximate sensitive (sensitive) periods of change in indicators and the development of physical qualities of school-age children.
The predominant orientation of the training process at the stages of long-term training is determined taking into account these sensitive periods of the development of physical qualities. At the same time, it is advisable to pay attention to the upbringing of those physical qualities that are not actively developing at this age. It is especially important to observe proportionality in the development of general endurance and speed abilities, in the development of general endurance and strength, i.e. those qualities, which are based on different physiological mechanisms.
Girls have sensitive periods of the formation of physical qualities come one year earlier.
In order to rationally build a long-term training process, one should take into account the time required to achieve the highest athletic performance in a particular sport. As a rule, capable athletes achieve their first great successes after 4-6 years, and the highest achievements after 7-9 years of specialized training.
Table 12
Approximate sensitive (sensitive) periods of change in weight indicators and the development of physical qualities of school-age children
| Weight indicators and physical qualities | Age, years | ||||||||||
| Height | + | + | + | + | |||||||
| The weight | + | + | + | + | |||||||
| Maximum strength | + | + | + | + | |||||||
| Rapidity | + | + | + | + | + | + | |||||
| Speed-power qualities | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | ||||
| Endurance (aerobic capacity) | + | + | + | + | + | ||||||
| Speed endurance | + | + | + | ||||||||
| Anaerobic capacity (glycolytic) | + | + | + | ||||||||
| Flexibility | + | + | + | + | + | + | |||||
| Coordination abilities | + | + | + | + | |||||||
| Equilibrium | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + |
The process of long-term training of athletes is conventionally divided into 4 stages: preliminary training, initial sports specialization, in-depth specialization in the chosen sport, sports improvement.
The duration of the stages of long-term training is due to the peculiarities of the kind of sport, the level of sports readiness of those who go in for it. There is no clear boundary between stages. When deciding on the transition to the next stage of training, one should take into account the passport and biological age of the athlete, his level physical development and readiness, the ability to successfully fulfill age-related training and competitive loads.
Preliminary preparation stage covers primary school age and moves to the next stage with the beginning of sports specialization.
At this stage, the following tasks are solved in training sessions:
mastering the available knowledge in the field of physical culture and sports by the trainees;
formation of the necessary basic fund of motor skills and abilities from individual sports, their consolidation and improvement;
promoting the harmonious formation of a growing body, health promotion, comprehensive education of physical qualities, mainly speed, speed-strength abilities, general endurance.
The preparation of children is characterized by a variety of means, methods and organizational forms, the wide use of elements different types sports, outdoor and sports games.
The play metope helps to emotionally and naturally carry out the exercises to keep the children interested in the repetition of the assignments. At this stage, training sessions with great physical and mental stress, involving the use of monotonous, monotonous educational material, should not be carried out.
The stage of initial sports specialization. The main tasks at this stage are to provide all-round physical readiness of the trainees, their further mastery of rational sports technique, the creation of favorable preconditions for achieving the highest results at an age optimal for each kind of sport.
Specialization has a "multi-sided", by no means narrowly focused character. Along with mastering the basics of the technique of the chosen kind of sport and other physical exercises, special attention is paid to the development of those physical qualities and the formation of motor skills that are important for successful specialization in the chosen kind of sport.
Versatile preparation with a relatively small volume special exercises more promising for subsequent sports improvement than highly specialized training.
The prevailing trend in the dynamics of loads in the years of initial specialization should be an increase in volume with a slight increase in the overall intensity of training. Although the intensity of exercise also increases, the degree of increase should be normalized within narrower limits than the increase in total volume.
Particular care in observing the measure of the intensity of loads is required during the intensive growth and maturation of the body, when natural plastic, energy and regulatory processes are sharply activated, which in itself is a kind of load for the body.
Large training cycles are characterized by extended preparatory period... The competitive period is presented as if minimized.
Advanced specialization stage in the chosen kind of sport falls on the period of an athlete's life, when the formation of all functional systems that ensure high performance and resistance of the organism in relation to unfavorable factors manifested in the process of intense training is basically completed. At this stage, the training process acquires a pronounced specificity. The proportion of special training is steadily increasing due to the increase in the time allotted for the performance of special preparatory and competitive exercises.
The total volume and intensity of training loads continue to increase. The number of competitions in the chosen sports discipline is increasing significantly. The training and competition system is becoming more and more individualized. The means of training to a greater extent in form and content correspond to the competitive exercises in which the athlete specializes.
At this stage, the main task is to provide a perfect and variable mastery of sports equipment in complicated conditions, its individualization, to develop those physical and volitional qualities that contribute to the improvement of the technical and tactical skill of the athlete.
Stage of sports improvement coincides with the age favorable for achieving high sports results. At this stage, the main tasks are preparation for the competition and successful participation in them. Therefore, in comparison with the previous stages, the training takes on an even more specialized focus. The athlete uses the whole range of effective means, methods and organizational forms of training in order to achieve the highest results in competitions. The volume and intensity of training loads reaches a high level.
More and more training sessions with heavy loads are used, the number of sessions in weekly microcycles reaches 10-15 or more. The training process more and more individualized and built taking into account the characteristics of the athlete's competitive activity.
18.6. training and competition loads
Load is the effect of physical exercises on the athlete's body, causing an active reaction of his functional systems (V.N. Platonov, 1987).
Competitive load is an intense, often maximum load associated with the performance of competitive activity.
The training load does not exist on its own. It is a function of muscle work inherent in training and competitive activities. It is muscular work that contains the training potential, which causes the corresponding functional restructuring on the part of the body.
By their nature, the loads used in sports are divided into training and competitive, specific and non-specific; by size - into small, medium, significant (near-limit) and large (extreme);
in orientation - to those that contribute to the improvement of individual motor qualities (speed, power, coordination, endurance, flexibility) or their components (for example, alactate or lactate anaerobic capabilities, aerobic capabilities), improving the coordination structure of movements, components of mental readiness or tactical skill, etc. NS.; in coordination complexity - performed in stereotypical conditions that do not require significant mobilization of coordination abilities, and associated with the performance of movements of high coordination complexity; by mental tension - to more intense and less intense, depending on the requirements for the mental capabilities of athletes.
According to the magnitude of the impact on the athlete's body, all loads can be divided into developmental, supporting (stabilizing) and restorative.
Developmental loads include large and significant loads, which are characterized by high effects on the main functional systems of the body and cause a significant level of fatigue. Such loads in terms of the integral effect on the body can be expressed through 100 and 80%. After such loads, a recovery period is required for the most involved functional systems, respectively, 48–96 and 24–48 hours.
Supporting (stabilizing) loads include average loads affecting the athlete's body at the level of 50-60% in relation to heavy loads and requiring the restoration of the most tired systems from 12 to 24 hours.
Rehabilitation loads include small loads on the athlete's body at the level of 25–30 \% in relation to large ones and requiring recovery no more than 6 hours.
The choice of a particular load should be justified primarily from the standpoint of efficiency. The most significant signs of the effectiveness of training loads include (M.A.Godik, 1980):
1) specialization, i.e. a measure of similarity to a competitive exercise;
2) tension, which manifests itself in a predominant effect on a particular motor quality, when certain mechanisms of energy supply are activated;
3) value as a quantitative measure of the impact of the exercise on the athlete's body.
The specialization of the load assumes their distribution into groups depending on the degree of their similarity with the competitive ones. On this basis, all training loads are divided into specific and non-specific. The specific loads are those that are substantially similar to the competitive ones in terms of the nature of the displayed abilities and the reactions of functional systems.
In the modern classification of training and competitive loads, there are five zones that have certain physiological boundaries and pedagogical criteria that are widespread in training practice. In addition, in some cases, the third zone is divided into two more subzones, and the fourth - into three in accordance with the duration of competitive activity and the power of work (Table 30). For qualified athletes, these areas have the following characteristics.
1st zone - aerobic recovery. The closest training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate up to 140-145 beats / min. Lactate in the blood is at rest and does not exceed 2 mmol / l. Oxygen consumption reaches 40–70% of the VO2 max. Energy supply occurs due to the oxidation of fats (50% or more), muscle glycogen and blood glucose. The work is provided by completely slow muscle fibers (MMF), which have the properties of complete utilization of lactate, and therefore it does not accumulate in the muscles and blood. The upper limit of this zone is the rate (power) of the aerobic threshold (lactate 2 mmol / l). Work in this area can take from several minutes to several hours. It stimulates recovery processes, fat metabolism in the body and improves aerobic capacity (general endurance).
Table 30
Classification of loads and characteristics of individual
intensity zones
|
intensity |
Preferential energy supply (substrates) |
The ratio of aerobic and anaerobic energy supply,% |
Oxygen consumption,% of VO2 max |
Limiting travel speed or work power |
during work |
Lactate concentration during work, mmol / l |
Involvement of muscle fibers |
Effective time work |
|
1. Aerobic regenerative |
Fat (50% or more), glycogen, blood glucose |
Aerobic threshold |
workout |
|||||
|
2.Aerobic developmental |
Glycogen, fats, blood glucose |
Anaerobic threshold |
2.5-4 (up to 4.5) |
|||||
|
3. Mixed aerobic-anaerobic (a, b) " |
Glycogen, fats, glucose |
Accordingly, the IPC |
MMV, BMW, MMV, BMW ", BMWd" |
0.5-2 h 10-30 min |
||||
|
4. Anaerobic glycotic (a, b, c) ** |
Glycogen |
70:30 40:60 20:80 |
95-100 85-95 75-90 |
8-15 10-18 14-20 (up to 25) |
MMV, BMW, BMW, |
5-10 min * 2-5 min * Up to 2 min * |
||
|
5 anaerobic alactate |
Creatine phosphate, ATP, glycogen |
Minimum |
Maximum |
Not informative |
Not informative |
MMV, BMW, BMW |
* One repetition.
** For explanations, see p. 332 - 333.
Loads aimed at developing flexibility and coordination of movements are performed in this zone. Exercise methods are not regulated.
The volume of work during a macrocycle in this zone in different sports ranges from 20 to 30%.
2nd zone - aerobic developmental. The short-term training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate up to 160-175 beats / min. Blood lactate up to 4 mmol / l, oxygen consumption 60–90% of the BMD. Energy is provided through the oxidation of carbohydrates (muscle glycogen and glucose) and, to a lesser extent, fat. Work is provided by slow muscle fibers (SMF) and fast muscle fibers (BMF) of the "a" type, which are switched on when loads are performed at the upper boundary of the zone - the speed (power) of the anaerobic threshold.
Fast muscle fibers of type "a" that enter into work are able to oxidize lactate to a lesser extent, and it slowly gradually increases from 2 to 4 mmol / l.
Competitive and training activities in this area can also take several hours and are associated with marathon distances, sports games. It stimulates the education of special endurance, requiring high aerobic abilities, strength endurance, and also provides work to foster coordination and flexibility. The main methods are continuous exercise and interval extensive exercise.
The volume of work in this zone in the macrocycle in different sports ranges from 40 to 80%.
3rd zone - mixed aerobic-anaerobic. The short-term training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate up to 180–185 beats / min, blood lactate up to 8–10 mmol / l, oxygen consumption 80–100% of the VO2 max. The provision of energy occurs mainly due to the oxidation of carbohydrates (glycogen and glucose). Work is provided by slow and fast muscle units (fibers). At the upper border of the zone - the critical speed (power) corresponding to the VO2 max, fast muscle fibers (units) of type "b" are connected, which are not able to oxidize lactate accumulating as a result of work, which leads to its rapid increase in muscles and blood (up to 8– 10 mmol / l), which reflexively also causes a significant increase in pulmonary ventilation and the formation of oxygen debt.
Competitive and training activities in a continuous mode in this zone can last up to 1.5-2 hours. Such work stimulates the education of special endurance, provided by both aerobic and anaerobic-glycolytic abilities, strength endurance. Basic methods: continuous and interval extensive exercise. The volume of work in the macrocycle in this area in different sports ranges from 5 to 35 \%.
4th zone - anaerobic-glycolytic. The closest training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in blood lactate from 10 to 20 mmol / L. The heart rate becomes less informative and is at the level of 180-200 beats / min. Oxygen consumption gradually decreases from 100 to 80% of the VO2 max. The provision of energy occurs due to carbohydrates (both with the participation of oxygen and anaerobic). Work is performed by all three types of muscle units, which leads to significant increases in lactate concentration, pulmonary ventilation and oxygen debt. The total training activity in this zone does not exceed 10-15 minutes. It stimulates the education of special endurance and especially anaerobic glycolytic capacity.
Competitive activity in this zone lasts from 20 seconds to 6-10 minutes. The main method is interval strenuous exercise. The volume of work in this zone in the macrocycle in different sports ranges from 2 to 7 \%.
5th zone - anaerobic-alactic. The short-term training effect is not related to the heart rate and lactate indices, since the work is short-term and does not exceed 15–20 s in one repetition. Therefore, blood lactate, heart rate and pulmonary ventilation do not have time to reach high levels. Oxygen consumption drops significantly. The upper limit of the zone is the maximum speed (power) of the exercise. The supply of energy occurs anaerobically due to the use of ATP and CP, after 10 s, glycolysis begins to connect to the energy supply, and lactate accumulates in the muscles. Work is provided by all types of muscle units. The total training activity in this zone does not exceed 120-150 s for one training session. It stimulates the education of high-speed, speed-strength, maximum-strength abilities. The volume of work in the macrocycle in different sports is from 1 to 5 \%.
The classification of training loads (see Table 30) gives an idea of the modes of work in which different exercises should be performed, used in training aimed at developing different motor abilities. At the same time, it should be noted that in young athletes from 9 to 17 years old, individual biological indicators, for example, heart rate, in different zones may be higher, and lactate indicators - lower. The younger the young athlete, the more these indicators differ from those described above and given in Table 30.
In cyclic sports associated with the predominant manifestation of endurance, for more accurate dosing of loads, the 3rd zone in some cases is divided into two subzones: "a" and "b". Subzone "a" includes competitive exercises lasting from 30 minutes to 2 hours, and subzone "b" - from 10 to 30 minutes. The fourth zone is divided into three subzones: "a", "b" and "c". In subzone "a" competitive activity lasts approximately 5 to 10 minutes; in subzone "b" - from 2 to 5 minutes; in subzone "c" - from 0.5 to 2 minutes.
Training loads are determined by the following indicators: a) the nature of the exercises; b) the intensity of work during their implementation; c) volume (duration) of work;
d) the duration and nature of the rest intervals between individual exercises. The ratios of these indicators in training loads determine the magnitude and direction of their impact on the athlete's body.
The nature of the exercise. By the nature of the impact, all exercises can be subdivided into three main groups: global, regional and local impact. Exercises of the global impact include those in which 2/3 of the total muscle volume is involved in the work, regional - from 1/3 to 2/3, local - up to 1/3 of all muscles (V.M. Zatsiorsky, 1970).
With the help of exercises of global influence, most of the tasks of sports training are solved, ranging from increasing the functional capabilities of individual systems and ending with the achievement of optimal coordination of motor and autonomic functions in conditions of competitive activity.
The range of use of exercises of regional and local impact is much narrower. However, using these exercises, in some cases it is possible to achieve shifts in functional state organism, which cannot be achieved with the help of exercises of global impact.
The intensity of the load largely determines the magnitude and direction of the impact of training exercises on the athlete's body. By changing the intensity of work, one can promote the preferential mobilization of certain energy suppliers, intensify the activity of functional systems to varying degrees, and actively influence the formation of the main parameters of sports equipment.
The intensity of work is closely interconnected with the developed power when performing exercises, with the speed of movement in sports of a cyclical nature, the density of tactical and technical actions in sports games, fights and fights in single combats.
In different sports, the following relationship is manifested - an increase in the volume of actions per unit of time, or the speed of movement, as a rule, is associated with a disproportionate increase in requirements for energy systems, which bear the predominant load when performing these actions.
Workload. In the process of sports training, exercises of various durations are used - from a few seconds to 2-3 hours or more. This is determined in each specific case by the specifics of the sport, the tasks that individual exercises or their complex solve.
To increase alactate anaerobic capabilities, short-term loads (5–10 s) with extreme intensity are the most acceptable. Long pauses (up to 2–5 minutes) allow recovery. The complete depletion of alactate anaerobic sources during exercise, and, consequently, an increase in their reserve leads to the work of maximum intensity for 60–90 s, ie. this kind of work that is highly effective for improving the glycolysis process.
Considering that the maximum formation of lactic acid in muscles is usually noted after 40-50 s, and work mainly due to glycolysis usually lasts for 60-90 s, it is the loads of this duration that are used to increase glycolytic capabilities. Rest pauses should not be long, so that the lactate value does not significantly decrease. This will improve the power of the glycolytic process and increase its capacity.
Prolonged aerobic exercise leads to the intensive involvement of fats in metabolic processes, and they become the main source of energy.
Complex improvement of various components of aerobic performance can be provided only with fairly long single loads or with a large number of short-term exercises.
It should be borne in mind that as long-term work of varying intensity is performed, not so much quantitative, but qualitative changes occur in the activity of various organs and systems.
The ratio of the intensity of the load (the pace of movements, the speed or power of their fulfillment, the time to overcome the training segments and distances, the density of the exercises per unit of time, the magnitude of the burdens overcome in the process of education strength qualities etc.) and the amount of work (expressed in hours, in kilometers, the number of training sessions, competitive starts, games, fights, combinations, elements, jumps, etc.) varies depending on the skill level, preparedness and functional state an athlete, his individual characteristics, the nature of the interaction of motor and autonomic functions. For example, the same work in terms of volume and intensity causes a different reaction among athletes of different qualifications (Fig. 36).
Rice. 36. The reaction of the body of athletes of different qualifications to the same
in terms of volume and intensity of work: 1 - athletes of the II category; 2 - athletes
1 category; 3 - masters of sports (according to V.N. Platonov, 1995)
Moreover, the ultimate (large) load, which naturally assumes different volumes and intensity of work, but leads to the refusal to perform it, causes them to have different internal reactions: of a pronounced reaction to the ultimate load, the recovery processes proceed more intensively (Fig. 37).
Duration and nature of rest intervals. The duration of the rest intervals is the factor that, along with the intensity of work, determines its predominant orientation.
The duration of the rest intervals should be planned depending on the tasks and the training method used. For example, in interval training aimed at predominantly increasing aerobic performance, you should focus on rest intervals at which the heart rate decreases to 120-130 bpm. This makes it possible to cause shifts in the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems, which in the greatest measure contribute to an increase in the functional capabilities of the heart muscle.
Rice. 37. The reaction of the body of athletes of different qualifications to
maximum load: 1 - master of sports; 2 - athletes of the II category
(after V.N. Platonov, 1995)
When planning the duration of rest between repetitions of an exercise or different exercises in the same session, three types of intervals should be distinguished.
1. Full (ordinary) intervals, guaranteeing by the time of the next repetition, practically the same restoration of working capacity, which was before its previous execution, which makes it possible to repeat the work without additional stress of functions.
2. Intense (incomplete) intervals, at which the next load falls on the state of some under-restoration of working capacity.
3. "Minimax" interval. This is the smallest interval of rest between exercises, after which an increased working capacity (supercompensation) is observed, which occurs under certain conditions due to the regularities of the recovery process.
When training strength, speed and dexterity, repeated loads are usually combined with full and "minimax" intervals. All types of rest intervals are used in endurance training.
By the nature of the athlete's behavior, rest between individual exercises can be active and passive. With passive rest, the athlete does not perform any work, with active rest, he fills in the pauses with additional activity. The effect of active rest depends primarily on the nature of fatigue: it is not detected with light previous work and gradually increases with an increase in its intensity. Low-intensity work in pauses has the greater positive effect, the higher the intensity of the previous exercises was.
Compared to the intervals of rest between exercises, the intervals of rest between classes have a more significant effect on the processes of recovery, long-term adaptation of the body to training loads.
In all sports there is the concept of "load" - the effect of physical exercises on the body, causing an active reaction from the body, which further contributes to changes in the athlete's functional systems (cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, etc.). These changes, in turn, lead to an increase in athletic performance.
The loads of orienteering athletes are divided into training and competitive loads (loads during training, loads during competitions). Training loads, in turn, can be divided into small, medium, significant and large. Small loads are used to restore strength after previous trainings or competitions, medium and large ones are used to maintain the achieved level of fitness and large ones are used to increase it. Otherwise, this division can be represented as restorative, support and developmental loads.
Since the impact of a certain load on an athlete's body depends on his level of fitness and age, there are no clear boundaries between these types of loads. The same load can be developmental for poorly trained athletes and supportive for highly qualified athletes.
An athlete of any age and level needs to monitor the combination of the above types of loads in training sessions. A serious mistake many orienteering athletes make is ignoring one type of load. For example, an athlete uses only supporting loads in training sessions, while forgetting about developing ones, and, as a result, sports form is maintained, but does not develop.
Loads also differ in their impact on motor qualities: speed, strength, flexibility, endurance, etc., as well as in their impact on various aspects of an athlete's readiness (improving technical, psychological, tactical, intellectual readiness). The predominance of various loads in the training plan in a specific period of training is dictated by the task set for this period.
Indicators of training and competition
loads
Training and competitive loads have their own indicators that allow them to be dosed and to determine the degree of their impact on the athlete's body.
All indicators can be conditionally divided into "external" and "internal".
"External" indicators: volume(kilometers, meters for a treadmill or ski training, number of individual exercises, hours for theoretical training etc.) and intensity(pace of movement, time to overcome training segments, etc.).
"Internal" indicators are the body's response to the work performed. It is possible to determine the reaction of the orienteer's organism to the load by measuring his heart rate (HR). In laboratory conditions, it is possible to measure a number of other indicators characterizing the changes that have occurred in the body under the influence of physical activity (pulmonary ventilation, oxygen consumption, etc.).
"Internal" and "external" indicators of training and competitive loads are closely interrelated. Thus, an increase in the volume and intensity of training work leads to an increase in shifts in the functional state of various organ systems, to the development and deepening of fatigue processes.
Training Load Components
The following indicators can be used to determine training loads:
- - intensity (speed of movement);
- - amount of work (distance, execution time, number of repetitions, etc.);
- - the duration and nature of the rest intervals.
In training, three types of rest intervals should be distinguished - full, incomplete and "minimax".
Full- restoration of the functioning of the body systems to the initial level (since only the heart rate can be recorded in the training of the orientator, then the restoration of the pulse to the initial one is complete). To determine the degree of recovery, the pulse is calculated before the load and after, if the indicators coincide, you can proceed to the next exercise.
Incomplete- the next load falls on the underrecovery phase, in other words, the rest interval is selected in such a way that the pulse by the time of the beginning next exercise did not have time to recover to the original level.
« Minimax»- the load is given during the supercompensation phase (overrecovery). After the next load, the athlete's performance decreases due to changes in the body (fatigue), during the rest period, the performance is restored to its original level, and then the phase of "supercompensation" begins, i.e. increase in working capacity to a higher level compared to the initial one.
Full and "minimax" rest intervals are used to develop speed and agility. All three rest intervals can be used to develop endurance.
By the nature of the rest, pauses between exercises can be of two types:
- - active rest (performing any other physical exercises);
- - passive rest (the athlete does not perform any muscle work).
A positive effect is given by performing various exercises with a map or exercises during the rest period for the development of various components of intelligence (memory, attention, logical thinking, etc.), but since this does not perform any muscle work, this rest period is considered passive.
Rest intervals between workouts are subdivided according to the same principle as rest intervals between individual exercises.
Ordinary interval- restoration of the body's functioning to the level preceding the previous lesson (the body is completely rested after the previous lesson).
Hard- shorter than an ordinary one, while the effect of the previous and current lesson is summed up (the next lesson is carried out against the background of fatigue from the previous lesson).
Supercompensatory- the load falls on the phase of supercompensation (increasing opportunities after the next lesson), which allows you to use a higher load.
It should be noted that the observance of certain intervals of rest between workouts is dictated by the task set during the given training period or the task set for this particular lesson.
In order for the training plans to be based on modern physiological concepts, objective and subjective indicators are now widely used to assess the level of working capacity and its changes under the influence of the training means used.
However, a simple calculation of parameters such as volume (measured in kilometers or hours) is not enough to describe the level of psychophysiological stress experienced by an athlete. Stress caused by sports training, is determined by more complex dependencies - intensity, duration (volume) and frequency of training.
To establish the effectiveness of training in practice, as a rule, the method of compiling target functions reflecting dose-effect relationship... Changes in the increase in the trained function depending on the volume of the training loads performed reflects the adaptive changes in the body that occur during training. The determinants of these processes, according to a number of authors, are biochemical shifts, the rate of recovery, the risk of injury, etc. Let's look at some approaches to measuring training load.
Training impulse method (TRIMPS).
The training impulse method (TRIMPS - Training Impuls) was developed by a group of foreign sports physiologists led by E.U. Banister. The method consists in measuring the training session in units of physical effort doses.
Training impulse index (TRIMPS) - the value of the training load - estimates the load according to the formula: TRIMP = T (mins) x ∆HR x Y
Where: T- duration of the load (min), ∆HR- heart rate, Y- the weighting factor of the given heart rate range.
The weighting coefficient "y" characterizes the average lactate profile and is equal to 1.67 for women and 1.92 for men. The use of this method is limited by the need to constantly use heart monitors in training. In addition, this technique cannot be used for quantification. strength training or submaximal running loads. It is advisable, on the basis of the lactate profile, to select individualized coefficients characterizing the relationship between heart rate and lactate concentration for a particular athlete. The same number of TRIMPS can be obtained both by short high-intensity workout and due to the large training volume of low intensity.
Generalized method training zones.
A number of researchers have used the traditional five training intensity zones based on different heart rate values. Each zone has its own weighting factor, and TRIMPS is calculated by multiplying the time spent in each training zone by the corresponding factor. Here is one example of the distribution of rates by heart rate zones.
The limitations of this method include the fact that in different subjects the anaerobic threshold is characteristic for different levels of heart rate. For example, in one athlete, the anaerobic threshold occurs at a heart rate of 76% of the maximum, and in another, the anaerobic threshold heart rate is 83%. Performing a 30 minute load at 78% intensity will give each of them the same number of TRIMP points (30 x 3), but physiological stress will vary significantly.
- The first zone is, as it is commonly called, the aerobic zone, which is at the level of the aerobic threshold and below. The upper boundary of this zone is the first lactate threshold (LT1), which corresponds to a lactate concentration of 2 mmol / l. As a rule, it is in this intensity range that highly qualified athletes in endurance sports spend most of the load. Energy, when loaded in this zone, is recovered mainly through oxidation. fatty acids... Athletes working in this area develop the body's ability to effectively use fatty acids as an energy source, which increases their performance.
- The second zone, adjacent or mixed, is above the aerobic threshold (first ventilation threshold) but below the anaerobic (second ventilation threshold). Energy supply at this intensity is provided both through the oxidation of fatty acids and with a progressive increase in the oxidation of carbohydrates. In the intensity range of the second zone, the concentration of lactate reaches a level of 2-4 mmol / L.
- The third zone lies in the interval between the level of the anaerobic threshold and the value of the maximum oxygen consumption (MOC). The third zone is a zone of high-intensity physical activity, where the main source of energy is carbohydrates obtained through the breakdown of glycogen. Competitive activity in terms of its intensity is close to the third zone. For qualified professional athletes of high qualifications, about 20% of the total training load occurs in the third zone.
- Supramaximal load, lies outside the VO2 max.... This intensity is dominated by the anaerobic mechanism of energy supply. This intensity is close to the maximum possible, and can be maintained by the athlete for a relatively short time.
From a practical point of view, the above-mentioned zones have rather wide boundaries. In Norway, a country with traditionally strong cyclical disciplines, it is customary to divide zones of intensity in more detail, without losing the general outlines of physiological principles. Their classification is more dictated by practical needs than physiological justifications. According to the Norwegian scheme, the zone at the level and below the aerobic threshold is subdivided into two subzones 1 and 2, respectively.
- Zone number one is usually called recovery zone.
- Zone number two is called moderate. As a rule, in the temperate zone, long roll-in workouts are carried out.
- Zone number 3, mixed zone, is light in intensity.
- Zones 4 and 5 lie above the anaerobic threshold and have narrow ranges. These zones are usually called the zone of medium and high severity.
- Everything that is above the intensity of the MIC level is in the supramaximal zone, the anaerobic zone. With this intensity, accelerations of a short duration are usually made and a long stay in this zone leads to fatigue or, in the worst case, overwork.
Classification of the severity of physical activity is necessary for a more accurate analysis of preparation and drawing conclusions. According to the famous sports specialist from Norway Stephen Seiler, only 3 zones of intensity are important from the point of view of physiological reactions:
- to the aerobic threshold (the average athlete has a lactate concentration of 2 mlM / l)
- mixed zone (between aerobic threshold and anaerobic threshold, lactate 2-4 mlM / l).
- after the anaerobic threshold (lactate> 4 mlM / L).
Each zone is assigned a coefficient (1,2,3, for example). The time spent in each zone (information is available in modern sports heart rate monitors - Polar, Garmin, Ciclosport, etc.) is multiplied by a coefficient and added up. This is the training load according to the modified method of generalized training zones. Another name for the numerical training load estimates obtained from the three zones is called Lucia's TRIMPS.
The so-called session-goal method.
An alternative approach to measuring the time spent in different intensity zones was proposed by the Norwegian specialist Stephan Seieler. In contrast to the approach based on the import of training data from sports cardiomonitors, in the training goal method, each training session (or part of the session, for example, interval work, warm-up-warm-up) is assigned a corresponding number, based not on the actual accumulated time in the zone, but based on from the goal set by the trainer to conduct the training session or part of it in the target intensity zone. The comparative analysis carried out in this work showed that these two methods give different estimates of the time spent by the athlete in the zones of intensity. This is due, firstly, to the inertia in the reaction of cardio-vascular system to increase the intensity. Second, at submaximal speeds of short duration, heart rate is no longer a valid measure of the degree of training stress experienced by an athlete.
The limitation of this basic and generalized method of training zones is the use of a linear dependence of weight coefficients on heart rate, which does not quite correctly reflect physiological reactions at speeds higher than the anaerobic threshold. In addition, the selection of weighting factors is subjective. Finally, the weighting factors characterize a certain range of intensities described by the heart rate. Meanwhile, the load at the beginning of the zone and at the end of the zone is obviously associated with several different levels physiological stress, but the measured training load will be the same.
At the same time, an increase in the average heart rate per workout by one beat per minute can transfer the entire workout from one zone to another, higher (and the training time will receive a greater weight coefficient). However, from a physiological point of view, these training loads are almost identical.
A common disadvantage of all approaches using the training impulse methodology is also the reduction of the training load to one number, regardless of the energy system involved in the performance of training or competitive work. For example, a low-intensity 3K run might give a TRIMPS of 15 for some athlete. The same number of TRIMPS as the competitive 1500m run.This method does not account for the specific training effects associated with energy systems... Nevertheless, this group of methods has become widespread as the main method for measuring the training and competitive load.
It should be noted that in real conditions of training and competitive activity, the use of traditional instrumental methods is associated with significant difficulties. Therefore, the increasing interest of sports specialists is attracted by psychometric methods, which provide an opportunity for an integral assessment of the loads performed. Evaluation of an athlete's own efforts quite accurately reflects the individual perception of the intensity of the training load. This assessment can be expressed through numerical scales (Borg scale, RPE, "rate of perceived exertion").
As it was shown, the use of this method in comparison with subjective assessments of physical load, the use of a large volume of low-intensity loads in training practice underestimates the level of physiological stress by the method of generalized zones in comparison with subjective assessments of RPE. Comparison of athletes who spend a lot of time in high-intensity training regimes leads to an overestimation of the level of training load using methods using heart rate compared to quantification methods based on the use of subjective self-assessments.
At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in Russian-language and foreign publications, the terminology used differs significantly, which can lead to discrepancies. It seems that there is an urgent need to streamline and unify definitions in the field of sports science. An accurate understanding of terms allows us to adequately assess the achievements in this special area of knowledge, at the same time, the misuse of terms or the heap of unnecessary terms only removes us from reality, hinders the development of this discipline.
In the domestic literature, devoted to the problem of quantification of training and competitive loads, the concept of "sports readiness" is widely used, which includes both fitness, and functional readiness, and sports form. In a broader sense, the structure of an athlete's readiness includes technical, physical, tactical and mental elements. At the same time, some experts emphasize that the mentioned conditions, although they are not synonyms, adequately reflect the course of adaptive processes to the load.
Sources of information: Cejuela-Anta R, Esteve-Lanao (2011), Hausken K (2014), Garcia-Ramos A (2013), Geiger G (2010), Neborskaya K.S., Kurashvili V.A. (2012, 2013, 2015), Andersson E, Pellegrini B, Sandbakk O, Stüggl T, Holmberg HC (2014), Alekseev V.M., E.B. Akimov (2008), Losnegard T, Hallén J (2014), Kozina Zh., Ermakov S., Prusik K (2011), Akimov E.B., Grushin A.A., Alekseev V.M. (2006), Borresen and Lambert (2008), Edwards (1993).