Among the educational publications dedicated to the European Middle Ages, the book by G.G. Königsberger stands apart. The author analyzes the events that took place in the countries of both Western and Eastern Europe, closely linking them with those processes in social and cultural life that developed in Byzantium, the Islamic world and Central Asia Europe in 400-1500. for G. Königsberger, these are by no means "dark ages", but a very dynamic period, at the end of which a system of values was formed that had a tremendous impact on all countries of the world. The book "Medieval Europe, ...
Argonauts of the Middle Ages Vladislav Darkevich
The book tells about travels in the VII-XIII centuries, about the difficulties of distant wanderings and their overcoming, about the desire of the people of that era to push the boundaries of the world known to them. Medieval explorers transferred beliefs, fashions, craft traditions, works of art and written monuments from country to country. Their activities contributed to the mutual enrichment of cultures, the creation of a certain unity of the medieval culture of Eurasia. The author draws on extensive material from the field of literature, archeology, art history, which testifies ...
Civilization of the Medieval West Jacques le Goff
This publication was carried out with the participation of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the French Embassy in Moscow. The author of the book, one of the leading representatives of the Annales School, makes an attempt to succinctly, but extremely vividly and convincingly characterize the main features of medieval civilization. The author's focus is on Space and Time in the life and perception of the then European population, its material life, characteristics of their social system and, most importantly, an analysis of their mentality, collective psychology, ways to feel and ...
The daily life of medieval monks ... Leo Moulin
The world of monks over the centuries has inspired and shaped the civilization of the European Middle Ages. What do our contemporaries know about the daily life of monasticism, how they prayed, how they prepared for death, what they read, what they ate, how they slept? Leo Moulin is a renowned specialist in the history and sociology of religion. He studied many different sources: chronicles and collections of customs, messages of the founders of orders and the lives of saints, as well as scientific works devoted to this issue. The author convincingly and vividly shows how ...
The Many Faces of the Middle Ages A. Ivanov
“Times are not chosen ...” The Middle Ages seem to us now as a “dark era”, distant and incomprehensible. But let's move our imagination seven centuries ago, walk through the noisy streets and squares of a medieval city, take a look at the surrounding meadows and arable lands, look under the arches of ancient, majestic castles - and we will see that even in this difficult time, under the heavy hand of the Inquisition, yaa! that behind this veil is hidden a whole layer of culture, which gave so much to us, distant descendants. The book includes the works of the director of the Imperial Nikolaev Tsarskoye Selo ...
Adoration of the Magi as a reflection of real ... Jaroslav Kesler
The phenomenon of "Adoration of the Magi" (otherwise called the three eastern kings) is directly related to the history of the emergence of Christianity. An extensive, well-illustrated overview on this issue is presented in the book by G. Nosovsky and A. Fomenko "Reconstruction of the General History". However, this review does not include a book containing unique information about "The Adoration of the Magi" as a reflection of real medieval events and published in Russian in 1998: John of Hildesheim "The Legend of the Three Holy Kings".
Another history of the Middle Ages. From antiquity ... Dmitry Kalyuzhny
Striking facts and unexpected conclusions: "simple schemes" of traditional history are crumbling, revealing a new, unknown past of mankind. The authors, using a huge amount of factual material, offer new versions of the history of the Middle Ages, exciting the reader's mind, and the heart sinks in anticipation of new insights. The book continues the project "Chronotron", which aroused increased interest among readers.
Autumn of the Middle Ages Johan Heizinga
Kheizinga J. Autumn of the Middle Ages / Per. from the Dutch by D. V. Silvestrov. - 5th ed .; reviewed by a translator. - (Library of the history of culture). ISBN 5-8112-0728-X The book by the Dutch cultural historian Johan Heisinga, first published in 1919, has already stood in his homeland for more than two dozen editions, has been translated into many languages and has become an outstanding cultural phenomenon of the 20th century. It is published in Russia as the third, revised edition with a detailed scientific apparatus. "Autumn of the Middle Ages" examines the sociocultural phenomenon of the late Middle Ages with detailed ...
Essays on the history of medieval Novgorod Vladimir Yanin
Medieval Novgorod has always attracted the attention of researchers. For some, he was revered as the birthplace of the Russian monarchy. For others, it has become a symbol of republican aspirations and the cradle of veche democracy. Large-scale archaeological research of Novgorod in recent decades has multiplied many times the amount of sources on the history of this city and state. The discovery of birch bark letters, the number of which is now approaching 1000, made it possible to hear the voices of Novgorodians who lived in the 11th – 15th centuries, and to solve many problems that were previously considered controversial. ...
Monetary and weight systems of pre-Mongol Rus ... Vladimir Yanin
The book is devoted to the study of the monetary circulation of Ancient Rus in the medieval era. The first part of the publication is the monograph "Monetary and weight systems of the Russian Middle Ages", published in 1956 and long ago became a bibliographic rarity. The second part contains articles reflecting the history and processes of the formation and development of the monetary system of Novgorod in the X-XIV centuries, as well as the organization of the Novgorod coinage in the XV-XVII centuries. The book is intended for numismatists, historians, archaeologists and anyone interested in numismatics. In the design ...
The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe William Watt
A popular essay on medieval Islam, its contacts with the culture of medieval Europe, was written by a famous English Islamic scholar based on an analysis of sources and with the involvement of the latest research. When Arab studies, Arab thought, and Arabic writings are presented in full, it becomes clear that without the Arabs, European science and philosophy could not have developed at such a pace. They not only kept alive the sciences that they comprehended, but also expanded their range. When, around 1100, Europeans became seriously interested in science ...
History of Philosophy. Ancient and medieval ... Vladislav Tatarkevich
"History of Philosophy" Vl. Tatarkiewicz (1886-1980), academician of the PAN, a famous Polish historian of philosophy, a specialist in ethics and aesthetics, has withstood more than ten editions in her country and is a popular textbook on the history of European philosophical thought. The book is notable for its encyclopedic nature, clarity and simplicity of language, contains an original concept for the development of historical and philosophical knowledge. It has been translated into many European languages and published in the USA and China. Published in Russian for the first time. Recommended for teachers and students of higher ...
A Medieval Novel and Novel by Christienne de Trois
In our understanding of the Middle Ages, the figure of a knight is invariably in the foreground. Crusades and knightly tournaments, adoration of beautiful ladies and loyalty to knightly duty and word - all this can be gleaned from the medieval novels of the 11th and 12th centuries.
The origin of the medieval Western civilization ... Natalia Basovskaya
Recording a program from the "ACADEMIA" cycle. The largest Russian historian-medievalist, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Natalia Ivanovna Basovskaya talks about the origin of the Middle Ages, about how a society, culture, civilization could have appeared, which no one planned, no one predicted.
Chan Buddhism and the culture of mental activity ... N. Abaev
Based on the material of a wide range of original Chinese sources, the monograph explores a little-studied layer of medieval Chinese culture, first identified by the author as an independent object of study, and shows the role of Ch'an Buddhism in its formation. Analyzed characteristics culture of mental activity in Ch'an Buddhism, its contribution to the development of traditional psychoculture in medieval China is investigated, its applied significance in the psychophysical preparation of a person for extreme conditions activity is being considered ...
"Russian means strong!" There has always been a cult of physical strength in Russia. It is no coincidence that the main heroes of folk legends were hefty heroes. There are too many strongmen in our history.
Kings and governors
Evpatiy Kolovrat
Evpatiy Kolovrat can be called the most powerful Russian governor. The "Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu" tells how Evpatiy and his squad entered into an unequal battle with the hordes of Mongol-Tatars "And Evpatiy beat them so mercilessly that the swords were dulled, and he took Tatar swords and whipped them."
Batu sent his best hero Khostovrul to deal with Evlampy. Kolovrat cut him in half to the saddle. Only with battering guns the Mongol-Tatars were able to defeat the Kolovrat squad, and Batu gave the body of the commander to the remnants of the squad for an honorable burial - a case unique for ancient Russian history.
Skopin Shuisky
Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky was the invincible commander of the Time of Troubles. He suppressed the Bolotnikov uprising, negotiated with the Swedes, began to reform the Russian army, but was poisoned by the daughter of Malyuta Skuratov because of the political intrigues of Dmitry Shuisky.
According to the descriptions of his contemporaries, Mikhail Vasilyevich was distinguished by his heroic build. Skopin-Shuisky's broadsword is kept in the historical museum. A heavy weapon for a very strong person.
Peter the Great
Peter the Great can be safely called the most powerful Russian tsar. His height was 204 centimeters, and physical strength amazed contemporaries who had seen views.
Peter twisted coins with his fingers, rolled cast-iron pans "into a ram's horn", and personally checked the suitability of a horseshoe for his horse Lisette, breaking one after another. More than one folk tale has been composed about the power of Peter the Great.
Alexander III
Russian Emperor Alexander III had an outstanding physical strength... Since his youth, he did not like secular entertainment, preferring to balls and parties riding lessons and physical education. The brothers said about him: "Sashka is our Hercules."
The emperor had to use his force in an extraordinary situation. October 17, 1888, while returning from the Crimea, the famous crash of the imperial train took place. The roof of the carriage in which the family of Alexander III was located began to collapse.
The emperor took the falling roof on his shoulders and held it until his wife and children emerged safe and sound from the rubble. After the family was rescued, Alexander III did not hesitate and rushed to help other victims.
Wrestlers and strongmen
Grigory Rusakov
Kuryanin Grigory Rusakov became a world famous wrestler after his debut in Donbas, where he worked in a mine. After conquering Russia, Rusakov won the world championships in Argentina (1913) and Paris (1915).
Like other eminent fighters, he was personally freed by Nicholas II from military service.
But not everything was smooth in Rusakov's life. He was prosecuted three times in 1929, 1938, 1944.
Rusakov was also known for repeatedly engaging in demonstration fights with bears, bending horseshoes and rails, and once in London he won a bull fight.
Ivan Poddubny
Everyone knows who Ivan Poddubny is. This is the most famous Russian strongman, weightlifter, wrestler. It is interesting that Poddubny lost his first fight. This motivated him very much: he set himself a tough training regimen, exercised with two-pound kettlebells, a 112-kilogram barbell, gave up tobacco and alcohol, doused himself cold water... Until the end of his life, he carried a cast-iron cane with him. He never lost again.
Conquered Poddubny and America. There he gathered full houses, competing according to the rules of American wrestling. From the United States, he actually fled, terminating the predatory contract and leaving the Americans the royalties due to him.
Towards the end of his life, Poddubny admitted that the only force that could overcome him was the women: “All my life, a fool, they have been knocking me out of the way.”
Ivan Zaikin
Ivan Zaikin is one of the most famous Russian strongmen. World wrestling champion, weightlifting champion, circus artist, one of the first Russian aviators.
Foreign newspapers called Zaikin "The Chaliapin of Russian Muscles." His athletic performances caused a sensation both in Russia and abroad. In 1908, during a tour in Paris, Zaikin shocked the audience by tearing any chains, bracelets and ties, bending metal beams.
Zaikin carried a 25-pound anchor on his shoulders, lifted a long barbell on his shoulders, on which ten people sat down, and began to rotate it (“live carousel”).
Georg Gackenschmidt
Georg Gakkenschmidt was called the "Russian lion" and "the most powerful man at the turn of the century." He was the World Wrestling Champion and the World Weightlifting World Record Holder.
Since childhood, Georg went in for sports, to strengthen his legs he practiced climbing a spiral staircase to the spire of the church with two-pound kettlebells. The merit that Gakk became a wrestler belongs to the "father of Russian athletics" Dr. Kraevsky - he convinced Georg that he could become the strongest in the world.
And Kraevsky was not mistaken - Gakk conquered Russia, Europe and America.
Gakk squeezed a barbell weighing 122 kg with one hand, squeezed a barbell weighing 145 kg on a wrestling bridge.
With his arms crossed on his back, Gaak lifted 86 kg from a deep squat. With a 50-pound barbell, the athlete squatted 50 times. Today this exercise is called the hack squat.
Peter Krylov
Pyotr Krylov was a strong man and a permanent winner of competitions for the best athletic figure. Even as a child, he chose his idol - athlete Emile Foss, who entered the arena in silk tights and leopard skin.
Krylov set several world records. In the "wrestling bridge" position, he squeezed 134 kg with both hands, 114.6 kg with his left hand. Bench press in the "soldier's stance": with his left hand 86 times in a row lifted a two-pound weight.
Krylov was called "the king of weights". He was the pioneer of spectacular stunts, which were then repeated by other athletes, and today by paratroopers: bending a rail on the shoulders, driving a car over the body, lifting a platform with a horse and rider.
Grigory Kashcheev
In this photo with prominent and far from small wrestlers, Grigory Kashcheev stands out for his height - 218 cm and his uniform is a simple blouse.
In 1906, Grigory Kashcheev first met world-class wrestlers and became friends with Zaikin, who helped him enter the big arena.
Soon Kashcheev put all the eminent strongmen on his shoulder blades, and in 1908, together with Poddubny and Zaikin, he conquered Paris at the World Championship.
Kashcheev's career, which began so brilliantly, did not work out - the wrestler became a downshifter, refused the most advantageous offers, dropped everything and went to his village to plow the land.
Alexander Zass
Alexander Zass was called “ iron Samson". He carried around the arena a horse or a piano with a pianist and dancer on the lid; I caught a 90-kilogram ball with my hands, which was fired from a circus cannon from a distance of 8 meters; tore off the floor and held in his teeth a metal beam with assistants sitting at its ends.
In the famous amusement ride Man-Projectile, Alexander Zass caught with his hands an assistant flying out of the muzzle of a circus cannon and describing a 12-meter trajectory over the arena.
In 1938, in Sheffield, in front of a gathering crowd, he was run over by a coal-laden truck. Samson stood up and, smiling, bowed to the audience.
Zass was one of the first to introduce training into his system isometric exercises... This allowed him to strengthen the tendons so that, with his low weight, he managed to set records that have not been broken so far.
Ivan Shemyakin
A two-meter giant, Ivan Shemyakin, in his first lesson at an athletic school, was able to push a barbell of only 72 kilograms with both hands, but this did not bother him. He began to train hard.
The training brought results: Shemyakin won the kettlebell competition of the Cycling and Athletic Society and took the third prize at the Russian Championship.
In 1908, in St. Petersburg, Shemyakin showed a unique power number - a metal beam was bent on his shoulder.
In 1913, participating in the world championship held in the St. Petersburg Circus "Modern", Ivan Shemyakin defeated the famous Ivan Zaikin, and the powerful, evil on the carpet, Nikolai Vakhturov, and took first place. Shemyakin also defeated other world-famous wrestlers, but his meetings with Ivan Poddubny always ended in a draw.
Ivan Lebedev
In 1916, Ivan Lebedev (the strongmen called him "Uncle Vanya") published the book "Guide how to develop your strength by exercising with heavy weights." Lebedev not only developed athletics and wrestling in Russia, but was himself a noble strongman. He studied with the same luminary of "Russian power" Vladislav Kraevsky.
Lebedev published the Hercules magazine and was the first promoter in Russia. His notes are interesting today.
Regarding the mode of life, he wrote: “ The human body does not tolerate constraints, but every excess is harmful. As for food, I strongly advise against eating meat: it introduces putrefactive decomposition products into your body and forms uric acid, which poisons the body. The basic rule of thumb for eating is to chew as slowly as possible. Drinking alcoholic beverages and smoking - I do not advise at all. Sleep - 7-8 hours. Dress without wrapping up or wearing warm underwear. Fresh air and water (showers or washings) - are necessary for every person who wants to be strong and healthy».
Vasily Alekseev
Vasily Alekseev is the last hero of the Soviet era. "Russian Bear" (as he was nicknamed by foreign fans) twice became the Champion Olympic Games, six times - World Champion, six times - European Champion, seven years held first place in the USSR championships.
During his sports career, Vasily Alekseev set 80 world records and 81 USSR records. He is also the "eternal" holder of the current world record for the amount three exercises- 645 kg (there are no competitions in this discipline now).
Vasily Alekseev competed with himself, setting new records in the championships from time to time. It was he who opened the era of "six hundred", the first to conquer the six hundred kilogram peak. From 1989 to 1992, Alekseev coached the national team of the country and the United Weightlifting Team. During his coaching none of the team members were injured. One of his devoted fans is Arnold Schwarzenegger.
Yuri Vlasov
Another brilliant Soviet weightlifter is the "iron man" Yuri Vlasov. Olympic champion(1960), silver medalist of the Games (1964), 4-time world champion (1959, 1961-1963), 6-time European champion (1959-1964; in the non-Olympic years, the championships were held as part of the world championships), 5-time USSR champion (1959-1963). Yuri Vlasov set 31 world records and 41 USSR records (1957-1967).
Yuri Vlasov was twice the standard-bearer of the USSR delegation at the opening of the 1960 and 1964 Olympic Games.
Ivan Denisov
Let's move on to modern strongmen. Traditions kettlebell lifting in Russia are still strong today. One of the strongest kettlebell lifters in the world is a representative of the Chelyabinsk kettlebell lifting school Ivan Denisov - an international master of sports. Ivan Denisov - multiple Champion Russia, Europe and the World, multiple record holder of Russia, Europe and the World.
In 2005, at the World Championships in Moscow, Denisov set absolute world records in clean and jerk equal to 175 lifts and 281 points in biathlon. Previously, the records belonged to Sergei Mishin and have been unchanged for over ten years.
Alexander Karelin
"San Sanych" Karelin at birth weighed 6.5 kilograms, at the age of 13 he was 178 cm tall and weighing 78 kilograms. Already 4 years after joining the section, Karelin became the world champion among youth.
For his sports career the wrestler collected all kinds of titles, won 887 fights, lost only two times. I took Olympic gold, 9 times became world champion, 12 times - European champion, 13 times took gold at the championships of the USSR, CIS and Russia. Alexander Karelin was awarded the Golden Belt four times as the best wrestler on the planet.
On February 20, 1999, Karelin had a duel with the Japanese fighter Akira Maeda. "Russian Bear" used only the arsenal of his native Greco-Roman wrestling in the ring. At the beginning of the fight, Maeda managed to carry out several kicks, but not even a minute had passed before he turned into a training dummy for practicing throws.
Fedor Emelianenko
Fedor Emelianenko, " the last Emperor”Has remained undefeated for almost ten years, which is unprecedented in the history of MMA.
Emelianenko - four-time world champion in MMA in heavyweight according to Pride FC, two-time - according to RINGS, two-time - according to WAMMA, four-time world champion and seven-time Russian champion in combat sambo... Honored Master of Sports in Sambo and International Master of Sports in Judo.
Vladimir Gilyarovsky
Another Russian strongman from literature is Vladimir Gilyarovsky.
At sixteen, he ran away from home. Having walked two hundred kilometers on foot from Vologda to Yaroslavl, he hired a burlak artel. At first, the barge haulers doubted whether to take the boy, but Gilyai possessed tremendous physical strength, pulled a nickle from his pocket and easily rolled it into a tube.
Mikhail Chekhov recalled the first visit of “Uncle Gilyai” to the Chekhov house: “He immediately became with us, invited us to feel his iron muscles on his hands, rolled a penny into a tube, rolled a teaspoon with a screw”.
EGYPT.
The most striking illustration of the struggle in Egypt is the drawings on the graves at Benn Rassan dating back to 3000 BC. They depict three positions of fighters: two in a stance, resembling the back and reverse belts, and one in a lying position on the ground.In the figure depicting a fight lying on the ground, the upper opponent tries to put pressure on the lower one on his back, and he, resisting, makes a kind of half-bridge , and holds on to the upper leg.
It follows from this that in Egypt wrestlers were allowed to use full body grabs in fights, i.e. the fight was free-style, and, in addition, it was required to put the squeeze on the enemy's shoulder blades. It is characteristic of ancient sports that the wrestlers shown in these figures are wearing bandage belts. From the inscriptions relating to the reign of Psamennite, it is clear that there were special fighters at the court of the pharaohs, whose duties were to take part in competitions during the festivities.
ETRURIA.
On the vases, ordinary witnesses to the life of the Etruscans, we do not see images of wrestling, but on the same tomb there are two drawings of the moments of wrestlers' fights. On one of them, the wrestler uses a technique somewhat similar to the current "tour de bra", and he himself, as is required in the current Greco-Roman wrestling, goes on one knee. On the other, a referee or teacher supervises the fight of the wrestlers, of whom one makes a certain "tour de bra". Opponents without suits and bandages, completely naked. The teacher is definitely wearing a professional costume that does not look like the usual Etruscan attire: a wreath on his head, a cloak of an original style and a straight stick in his hand, which probably served for blows in case the wrestlers used incorrect techniques.
JAPAN.
Legends of Japan say that 2000 years ago, the famous strongman Noni-no-Sukune defeated Teema in the fight of hercules, grabbing the opponent's legs and throwing him over his head. The colossal Teyema struck with such force, falling to the ground that he could not get up, and the winner, as usual, trampled him to death with his feet. Subsequently - continues the legend - Nonino-Sukune compiled a list of rules and techniques, using which<слабый мог бросить сильнейшего>... The custom of trampling the enemy to death was abolished by the same Noni-no-Sukune, who became either more benevolent in old age, or out of a sense of precaution so that he himself would not suffer the same fate in case of defeat by younger ones. Noni-no-Sukune is still considered the patron of Japanese wrestlers.
The legends of all times and peoples tell us about the same competitions and the struggle against a number of developed methods and rules: the monuments of the Mexican Incas, and the ancient Russian epics, and the Caucasian legends about Rustam the hero, and the Scandinavian sagas about the Vikings, and the epic of India about Nadya and Damayaiti ... Bypassing all this, we will stop at the fight in ancient greece and Rome, where a whole system of struggle took shape, which has passed through the Middle Ages into our time, at first under the name Greco-Roman, then called French, then classical and again - Greco-Roman.
GREECE.
Speaking of the struggle in Greece, two periods must be taken into account: 1) the heroic, Homeric and 2) historical.
In the Homeric period, the struggle is called<изнурительной силам>... Song XXIII<Илиады>talks about how Achilles arranged a competition for prizes on the grave of his friend Patroclus: the winner received<медный огненный треножник, ценою в двенадцать волов>; defeated -<юную рукодельницу>... Odysseus and Ajax fought. First, the opponents are grappled crosswise, and Ajax throws Odysseus to the ground. He rises and dumps his more strong adversary the footrest while falling on his chest. Achilles, as a judge, recognizes the fight ended in a draw and awards both equal prizes. Conclusion - the fight was free and it was necessary to recognize the victory either to throw the enemy to the ground several times, or to turn him over on his shoulder blades. The fight was not limited to a period, which is why its name:<изнурительная силам>... Before the fight, Homeric opponents wear special bandage belts.
How popular wrestling competitions were can be seen from the fact that<Илиада>, telling about the fight between Achilles and Agamemnon, he exposes the gods as judges of the fight, who, having become interested in the course of the struggle and wanting to achieve any result, increase the strength, growth and endurance of opponents. The legend about the march of the Argonauts led by Jason to Colchis on the Argo ship for the golden fleece says that Jason, while stopping on the island of Lemnos, was the first to introduce the pentathlon (pentacle). Thanks to the introduction of wrestling into these competitions, the strongest wrestler Paley emerged victorious among the Argonauts. About the beloved strongman of the Greek epic of the heroic period - Hercules - we see an indication of how he fought in the description of his two exploits: with Antaeus, to whom every time he touched the ground, strength was added, and which therefore Hercules could only defeat by strangling, when climbing high from the ground, as well as with the Egyptian robber Kak. Being deified as the most popular strongman of the heroic period, both by the Greeks and the Romans, Hercules inherited from them passed to the Gauls under the name of Pantophagus. The Gaulish legends about the exploits and adventures of Hercules-Panthofagus were retold by the French satirist Rabelais in 1532 in a book that became part of classical literature under the title. This world-famous book is signed by a pseudonym<Алкофрибас Нозье>.
In the historical period of the life of Greece, wrestling is such a favorite sport that the winners were showered with a number of honors. They were exempted from all taxes, had the right to occupy places of honor everywhere, fought alongside the king in battle (which was very beneficial for the latter), entered the native city through a special breach in the city wall specially made for this purpose. Rewarding the winner with a triumphal entry or entry into his hometown through this gap, the strongman's fellow citizens showed that they were not afraid of any walls. At sports competitions in ancient Greece, which were of great public importance in ancient world, wrestling as a sport has appeared since the XVIII Olympiad. Since the XXXIII Olympiad, she has been joining in fistfighting. Just as running, also a favorite sport of the Greeks, demanded victory in a competition for one, two and many laps, as well as with full armor - so a wrestler, to be recognized as a winner, had to come out first in a number of competitions. He was required to overcome first one opponent, then five in turn and emerge victorious in a fight combined with a fist fight. At first, the nature of the fight was purely amateur, they fought for honors. But professionalism was just around the corner: this was facilitated by too large monetary awards to the winners, which in Athens reached a fabulous sum of 500 drachmas at that time. These awards created a division of wrestlers into amateurs and professionals. Both those and others studied the techniques and rules of wrestling in special premises (gymnasium) under the guidance of experienced teachers from the old wrestlers. In the gymnasiums there were special equipment for training - weights (galters) and heavy hanging sandbags. Both during training and in competitions, the wrestlers rubbed their bodies with oil, and then sprinkled them with sand, and fought completely naked. After the fights, the oil and dirt had to be scraped off with special hand spatulas, then the wrestlers went into a hot or cold bath... To recognize a victory, just as in the Homeric period, it was required either to throw the opponent to the ground three times, or to knock him over on his shoulder blades, and in the latter case, a fight lying on the ground (parterre) was allowed. At first, full-body grips were used, but over time, the code of rules for wrestling began to require the application of grips only to the enemy's waist.
Historians Pausanius and Diogenes Laertius say that the wrestlers of the historical period of Greece adhered to a well-known regime: after the struggle, they went to rest, ate milk cheese, wheat, the meat of a young goat and avoided drinking wine.
ROME.
The harsh morals of the primary<железного>Rome forced every citizen to strive for the development of strength. So the fight is<состязание сильных>, as Ovid calls it, was widespread as a sport among all strata of the Romans.<Энеида>Virgilia talks about the battles in the struggle of Aeneas and his companion, calling the struggle<показывающей превосходство перед всеми>... But over the centuries, iron Rome gave way to the pampered Rome of Caesarism, and at the same time, competitions in wrestling began to be exclusively professional in nature, and only captured gladiator slaves act in them. From the very word<гладиатор>it can be seen that the defeated in any kind of competition could face death (gladius - sword), and therefore the competition in wrestling, as in other gladiator fights, was fierce. For the first time, wrestling matches are mentioned when describing a holiday organized by Emperor Mark Fulvius in 186 BC. Competitions in wrestling under Nero Ahenobarbus, who himself sometimes went out to fight, and according to the custom of all the rulers of all eras and peoples, had to emerge victorious, reached especially splendid prosperity. How great the passion of the Roman emperors was to act as professional strongmen in the circus arenas can be seen from the history of the reign of Commodus. This colossus of extraordinary build, fighting the gladiators, after the victory stabbed his opponent if he seemed very strong to him (Commodus's defeat was not allowed due to his imperial rank). It is also a historical fact that victories in the struggle brought the imperial throne to the giant shepherd, the barbarian Maximilian. While in the troops of Septimius Severus, he attracted the attention of the latter with his extraordinary height and physique. The North, having decided to bring Maximilian closer to him as a bodyguard, tested his strength and endurance: Maximilian several times ran after the horse of the North around the entire camp, killed 7 legionnaires in a duel and overcame 16 strongest fighters who were in the North camp one after another. The start of his career was done, and after a few years Rome welcomed the Emperor Maximilian. Not yielding in appetite to Gargantua Rabelais, Maximilian, according to historians, drank a bucket of wine a day and ate 60 pounds of meat.
In the era of Caesarism, gladiators underwent no less training than the ancient Greeks. In their<палестрах>the workout was accompanied by both baths and special massage... From the ranks of gladiators came the famous Spartacus, who raised the banner of rebellion among slaves and threatened the existence of Rome - he also possessed colossal strength and was one of the best fighters <палестр>... The gladiators have developed a whole code of rules and methods of wrestling, partly borrowed from the Greeks, partly developed by the very conditions of competitions in the circus, where the defeated could face death. In view of the latter circumstance, the style of struggle of the Romans was free, the fights were of a rough, fierce character, and the defeated, naturally, was considered to be overturned on his back, as in a hopeless position.
FIGHT IN THE MIDDLE AGES AND IN A NEW HISTORY UNTIL THE XIX CENTURY.
In the Middle Ages, human strength was of colossal importance, but in most cases, competitions were limited to armed combat. Therefore, in medieval chronicles, wrestling, as a competition of opponents without weapons, is not given much space. Moreover, wrestling was a sport exclusively for the masses, who were forbidden to engage in armed and equestrian sports, which were exclusively the privilege of the upper class. Most of the stories about the phenomenal strongmen of the Middle Ages tell us either about the lifting of fabulous weights, or about the deadly blows of their fists and swords. True, in these stories only crowned persons or knights appear. Such are the stories about John Tzimiskes, Pepin the Short, Karl Martell, knocking down any strong man with his fist, Charlemagne, raising an armed knight in his palm, the giant Ekofer, Roland, who cut the rock in half at Rossenval, Betran Dugesclein, etc. It is reliably known from the chronicles and chronicles only that at all the fairs, among the mass of amusements, there were also wrestling competitions, in which special professional, strongmen, usually distinguished by colossal growth and body size, competed, who wished from the population to measure their Forces with them. It is also known that in Western Europe then there were two styles of wrestling: one - with trips, throwing over the head and head strikes; the other is purely forceful, reminiscent of Russian girth wrestling and partly modern Greco-Roman, but only in its power techniques. The loser was considered to be thrown to the ground. Professionalism in the transition from the Middle Ages to new story finds application not only at fairs - at a number of courts of kings and nobles, among the rest of the entourage there are special wrestlers who take part in competitions.
Undoubtedly, the invasion of the Tatars, for whom wrestling was their favorite pastime, had a great influence on the development of wrestling in Europe as a sport. The following excerpt from the diary of a Polish knight who was captured by the Tatars deserves interest:
<...Пары борцов, точно обезумевшие, схватывались около костров. Иногда падая в костер, они, не замечая ожогов, снова бросались друг на друга. Наградой победителю были две красивые полонянки и прекрасная лошадь с богатым седлом. Мурзы сидели неподвижно на коврах, наблюдая за борьбой. Награду получил тот, кто поборол всех остальных - <сильнейший между сильными>.
Meetings with Tatar fighters, who, like all the peoples of the East, allowed grabbing the whole body and stretching, made it especially popular in Western Europe<вольную>fight. She was joined by another very characteristic style:<единоборство ногой к ноге>, i.e. shifting the enemy from the spot. The chronicles of the 16th century say that no one could defeat Louis Bouffler, nicknamed<Крепким>... Who knows, maybe Louis Buffler was helped in his victories by his ducal dignity, because, like the Roman Commodus and Nero, some irresistible force made him strive for victories in the struggle and in the public manifestation of his strength: both Richard the Lionheart and Sultan Saladin , and Skadenberg, and Charles of Burgundy, and all the Saxon electors with Augustus the Strong at the head, and Peter I. The same is observed in the life of their courtiers - in our history an example is not far off: the lover of Catherine II Grigory Orlov and his brother Alexei considered their favorite pastime to fight the serfs of their peasants. The prizes were distributed in the reverse order: the Counts Orlovs awarded the strongman they defeated, and the one who had the misfortune to defeat any of the counts could recall his struggle, sitting in a dog kennel, chained to a chain. The struggle in pre-Petrine Russia, as well as later until the 19th century, was based solely on strength, and for victory it was enough to throw the enemy to the ground. His favorite technique was the front girth over the top of the body, which retained the name<русский обхват накрест>... Hence, it is only natural that weight and height were of decisive importance, in addition to strength. Not the slightest attention was paid to dexterity, and steps were strictly forbidden and were considered for some reason<цыганским>reception.
In the 16th century, we already meet in the West a manual for wrestling: it was a book by Fabine von Arerswald<Искусство борьбы>, published in 1539. Then a book appeared under the same title, written by Nikolai Peters and published in 1674. In addition, the famous artist of that era, Albrecht Durer, left to posterity not many sketches, not few, like 119 pairs of wrestling in a wide variety of techniques.
The spectators did not delve much into the specifics of weightlifting - form, technique or exact weight. They were interested in more practical questions:
Can you carry the horse on your shoulders?
And break the chain with your chest?
And what about withstanding a car driving up your neck?
How about lifting the baby elephant up the stairs?
Each strongman tried to develop his own specialization in order to stand out.
John Holtum became famous for catching 23 kg cannonballs. (On the first try, he lost three fingers.)
Alexander Zass ("The Amazing Samson" or "Iron Samson") was famous for his masterly bending of steel bars. This talent is said to have helped him escape from Austrian captivity during the First World War. Once, Alexander Zass carried a horse wounded under him from the battlefield on his shoulders.
Sigmund Breitbart could hammer a railroad spike with his bare hands through five 2.5 cm thick oak planks. In his final show, he accidentally pushed the fasteners into his leg, resulting in fatal blood poisoning.
The spectacular performances have inspired many followers. The training systems that were developed and marketed by such famous strongmen as Evgeny Sandov formed the basis of modern bodybuilding, which now eliminates the exciting risk of death or self-harm.
The origins of bodybuilding in retro photography, 1890s-1940s:
1897. Russian wrestler Georg Gakkenschmidt pulls the rope.
1894. Eugene Sandov in the pose of a Greek statue, whose physique he called to imitate.
1896. Evgeny Sandov posing on a bicycle.
"My exercise is no less regular than sunrise."
Evgeny Sandov, 1924.
1893. Evgeny Sandov demonstrates his physique in the studio.
1900. Strongman Evgeny Sandov - the founder of modern bodybuilding.
1920. Galen Goch under the wheels of a car prepares for the World Strongman Championships in New York.
1925. Greek boxer and strongman Just Lessis bends an iron bar around his neck.
1925. Circus strongman Stefan demonstrates his strength by dragging a car through the streets of Berlin with his teeth.
1927. Edward Rees demonstrates his strength. He supports four actresses by hanging between two chairs.
1927 K. Attenborrow of the Royal Horse Guards was considered the strongest man in the British army. In the photo, he is holding a friend with one outstretched hand.
1935. Garry Swansea Pelta, 21, is a 21-year-old tailor named Welsh Strongest Man.
1927. Edward Rees holds the weight of two women with his teeth.
August 1, 1930. "Strong Boy" Lewis Clark shows his back muscles.
May 28, 1932. 14-year-old "Samson Boy" supports a 91-kg motorcycle and biker.
June 3, 1932. J. Rolleano carries the weight of a Citroen as it rides across his chest.
June 3, 1932. J. Rolleano pulls a truck with his teeth.
February 26, 1932. Tom Joyce declared himself the strongest man in Bristol. Here's how he demonstrates his power: four men pull on a rope wrapped around his neck.
August 1, 1934. "The Strongest Man in the World" Samson Brown lets a motorcycle ride over his body.
August 14, 1934. Joe Price nails the ad with a 23 kg hammer.
September 20, 1941. 60-year-old British soldier lifts 227 kg (two people plus a barbell).
March 18, 1935. London strongman George Challard allows a partner to bend a piece of iron around his neck.
Two athletes enter the arena. They have powerful torsos and huge fists. Even in appearance, one can say that they are real heroes. Each of them has a bronze helmet on their heads, and thick bandages cover their ears to protect them from blows. The fighters do not have leather boxing gloves, but their arms are braided up to the elbows with belts made of thick bovine leather. There are hard knots and even lead plates on the belts. This makes the blows especially dangerous.
The fight could be fought until one of the rivals falls dead or admits himself defeated. Usually, the fighters did not retreat in front of each other and did not defend themselves: it was believed that it was unworthy of a man to evade blows. Defeat in battle was considered a shame. Therefore, the Spartans, who participated in all other competitions, never took part in fist fights. It was not always possible to count on victory, and the debt of honor did not allow the Spartan to admit he was defeated.
For many hours in a row, the soldiers stood under the scorching sun, exchanging blows. Any such blow could have knocked down a bull. But the athletes seemed to be petrified, they do not even show that they are in pain, that their consciousness is about to leave them. Victory often depended on the composure and fortitude of the fighter.
Almost not a single fist fight in Olympia ended well. The victors and the vanquished left the arena in bruises and bruises, with folded jaws and broken ribs.
Here is an epigram dedicated to the famous fist fighter of the time, Stratophone:
“Odysseus, when he returned after twenty years of absence to the fatherland, was recognized by his dog Argos. You, Stratophone, after four hours of fistfighting become unrecognizable not only for dogs, but for the whole city. And if you thought to look in the mirror, you would have cried out: "No, I'm not a Stratophone!"
The most famous fist fighters in ancient times were the strongmen from the city of Crotona. Thirteen Olympic winners have emerged from this city located in southern Italy. No wonder they said that the last of the Crotons is equal to the first among the other Greeks.
Milon of Crotonsky, a six-time Olympic winner, was especially famous for his strength. He could, for example, take an apple in his palm, and “and one strong man could not open his fingers, despite the fact that he held the apple so gently that it remained intact. When Milo stood on the stone disc, there was no person who could move him, although the disc was oiled.
At that time, there was a custom: a statue was erected to the winners of the Olympic Games. They say that when the statue of Milo-on of Crotonsky was cast from bronze, the athlete himself put it on his shoulders, brought it to Altis and installed it on a pedestal.
Only one person could argue with Milo by force. It was the Thessalian Polydamus. He was also given a statue at Olympia, and his exploits were depicted on the bas-reliefs.
Somehow the Persian king Darius heard about the extraordinary power of Polydamas. He sent an embassy to Greece, which he ordered to bring the strong man to his palace. Polydamus came to Asia and there, in front of the king's eyes, one after another, he defeated the three most powerful giants from the army of Darius in a fist fight.
Famous people of the ancient world - scientists, writers - also took part in wrestling competitions and fist fights. The famous philosopher Plato won the fight more than once. The great mathematician of antiquity Pythagoras, before becoming famous for his famous theorem, received recognition from his compatriots for courage and fortitude in fist fights.
The spectators filling the stadium at Olympia are not; have witnessed interesting spectacles. Wrestling and fistfights gave way to pankration. This was the name of the duel in which the techniques of wrestling and fist fighting were used. In its cruelty, pankration even surpassed fistfights. The victory in pankration was considered difficult, but the most honorable. But especially great honors were enjoyed by athletes who managed to win two victories at once: in a fist fight and in pankration. There were only a few such people in the history of the Olympic Games. Their names were entered into special lists and glorified throughout Greece.
One of the most famous fist fighters was the strong man Diagoras from Rhodes. In 464 BC, he was crowned with the victor's olive wreath. Diagora's three sons and two grandchildren have also won Olympic Games more than once.
When Diagoras was a deep old man, his sons again became famous for victories in fist fights and pankration. In the midst of the celebration, they went up to their father, crowned his gray head with palm branches and, lifting him on their shoulders, carried him through the parting crowd.
People shouted enthusiastically:
- Die, Diagoras, die! For you have nothing more to desire, unless you ascend to the gods on Olympus during your lifetime.
And the heart of the old athlete could not stand it: Diagoras died of happiness.