Gladiator fights were a characteristic feature of the ancient Roman way of life. Their main participants were professional fighters trained to fight each other with different types of weapons. The equipment of the gladiators was diverse and initially corresponded to the characteristics of the weapons of various opponents of the Romans.

Over time, several basic types of gladiatorial weapons were formed. We invite you to get to know them better in this thread.

Secutor

Secutor, or "pursuer" is a heavily armed fighter, first mentioned in sources around 50 AD. His protective equipment included a fully enclosed helmet with no visor or brim, a padded bracer on right hand and a short legging on the left leg. The large rectangular shield of the secutor was shaped like the shield worn by Roman legionnaires. He was armed with a short straight sword. The total weight of the secutor equipment was 15–18 kg.

In his equipment, the secutor resembled a gall or murmillo, from which he must be descended. The main difference between them was the opponent with whom these fighters had to meet in the arena. For the secutor, lightly armed retiarii were such constant opponents, while the murmillo usually fought other heavily armed gladiators - hoplomachi and Thracians.

Even the helmet of a special design, which distinguishes the secutor from the murmillon, as well as the provocateur close to him in armament, was specially designed to fight the retiarius. Being practically devoid of protruding parts, this helmet made it easier for the secutor to throw off the enemy's net.

A large shield and other equipment allowed the secutor not to be afraid of attacks, but at the same time limited the fighter with their weight and fettered his movements. To hit his opponent with a short sword, the secutor had to approach him almost closely. The retiarius, much lighter and more agile than his opponent, in turn sought to wear him down with false attacks. The result of the battle between them, therefore, was decided by the composure and endurance of the fighter.

Emperor Commodus, who ruled from 180-192, fought as a secutor in the arena.

Secutor Helm

The helmets that belonged to the secutors include closed combat headgear without a brim, with a high crest at the top of the dome. Structurally, they resemble helmets worn at the same time by provocateurs, from which they differ in a simpler design, as well as a minimum number of protruding parts that could catch the retiarial net, the traditional opponent of the secutor.

The dome of the helmet is forged from a single piece of bronze or iron and fitted with a wide butt plate that provides protection for the neck and upper shoulders. The helmet visor consists of two large cheekpieces suspended on side hinges from the bottom of the rim. In front, the place of joining of both cheek pieces was protected by a vertical pin plate. Eye slits are two unprotected narrow round holes that severely limit the viewing angle. The disadvantages of the helmet include the lack of holes for the ears, which doomed its owner to almost complete deafness. In addition, poor air circulation and significant weight allowed the helmet to be worn only for a very limited time.

Shield of secutor, murmillon and provocateur

The secutor, murmillo and provocateur were armed with a large rectangular convex shield (scutum), similar to those worn by Roman legionaries in the 1st century. Judging by the ratio with the figures of warriors on mosaics and frescoes, the dimensions of the shield were approximately 1 m long and 0.5 m wide. The base of the shield was made of three layers of thin wooden planks glued at right angles to each other. The thickness of the wood in the center of the shield was about 6 mm and decreased towards the edges to lighten its weight. From the outside, the shield was covered with leather and richly painted with geometric patterns and figures. The edges above and below were upholstered with bronze clips so that the tree would not chip from blows. The shield was held with the hand by the transverse handle, which passed through the center. The weight of a modern reconstruction of such a shield is approximately 7.5 kg.

The shield provided the fighter with reliable protection of the hull, but at the same time significantly limited his mobility. In a fight with a more lightly armed gladiator, this circumstance definitely gave the initiative to the enemy.

Leggings of the Secutor, Murmillo, and Provocateur

Leggings (ocrea) were part of a protective armor that covered the leg from the knee to the instep of the foot, i.e. that part of it that was not usually covered by a shield. They were made of bronze by beating a metal sheet along a convex matrix so that it took the shape of a shin. Leggings were worn over soft straps made of stuffed fabric. The diameter of the archaeological finds testifies to the considerable thickness of the soft lining. In order for the leggings to fit snugly on the leg, they were fixed with straps, which were passed through two or three pairs of rings, attached to the edges of the leggings on each side.

The number of leggings and their type were strictly regulated in each type of gladiatorial equipment. Secutors, myrmillons and provocateurs are usually depicted with only one short greave, which they wear on their left leg. During excavations in Pompeii, 9 such leggings were found, the length of which varied from 28 to 35 cm. All the leggings, with the exception of one, were luxuriously decorated with figured chased images and engraved ornaments.

Sword of secutor, murmillo and provocateur

The sword (gladius) was the main weapon of the gladiators, from which they got their name. Judging by the reliefs and mosaic images of the 1st century BC. – I century AD it was the same weapon carried by the Roman legionaries. It was a straight double-edged blade 60–65 cm long and about 4 cm wide, with parallel blades turning into a long and thin point, equally well suited for both chopping and thrusting. The heavy handle, carved from wood and ivory, shifted the balance of the weapon to its lower part, which allowed the fighter to deliver well-aimed thrusting blows, quickly change the direction of attack, make feints, etc.

Judging by the images of the 1st-3rd centuries, at this time the length of the sword is greatly reduced, which makes it difficult to practical use, but at the same time delays the duel and enhances its spectacular component. During the excavations of the gladiatorial school in Pompeii, three swords were found with a laurel-shaped blade and an ivory handle. The length of the blade of all three specimens varies from 20 to 30 cm.

Bracers

The bracers (manica) worn by gladiators, as well as the legguards and greaves they used, could be made from both sheet bronze and printed and quilted in several layers of fabric. Due to the lack of material remains of these items of equipment, their design and cut are still the subject of discussion.

Apparently, the stuffed fabric used to make this kind of armor was quite thick. In any case, the poet Juvenal, describing the arms and legs of gladiators, enclosed in soft armor, likens them to the appearance of a thick wooden deck. They look the same on mosaics and frescoes depicting gladiators. In order for the armor to sit snugly in its place, they had to be tightened with lacing and additionally fixed with straps.

As a means of combat protection against enemy weapons, soft armor was quite effective. They protected their owners both from slashing blows and from the pricks of the sword's edge. In addition, they gave the fighters an exotic look, which was in line with the aesthetics of the spectacle.

Strictly speaking, there is no unequivocal evidence pointing to the material of gladiatorial bracers. The debate about whether they were made from soft printed fabric or metal plates continues to this day. One of the arguments of the supporters of the first version is that during the excavations of the gladiatorial barracks in Pompeii, many items of equipment were found, but no bracers were found. Their opponents point out that the small plates from which this armor was assembled could simply not be recognized. One of the arguments in favor of metal bracers is a number of finds of the latter during excavations of military warehouses of the 1st-2nd centuries, primarily in Newstead and Carlisle. If the bracers found there could have been worn by soldiers, gladiators could theoretically have used them as well.

Structurally, Roman bracers were laminar armor, in which metal strips, typed vertically, were connected to each other by riveting or stringing them on leather belts. The stripes had to be precisely calculated funnel-shaped. Running into each other, they formed an extremely flexible, elastic coating that did not hinder movement.

Loincloth

The loincloth (subligaculum) was a common Roman undergarment. It was a triangular piece of fabric with a length of one and a half meters on each side. The two ends corresponding to the corners at the base of the triangle were tied in a knot on the stomach. The third end was passed between the legs and dragged under the knot formed by the other two ends, so that it hung down like an apron. From above, the loincloth was fixed with a wide leather belt, which, in turn, was fastened with hooks or simple lacing. Judging by the frescoes and mosaic images, the loincloth was of bright colors, possibly also decorated with embroidery.

Although in most of the available images, the gladiators are shown dressed only in a loincloth that leaves the torso and hips open, in some cases the gladiators entered the arena in tunics.

Goplomakh

Hoplomachus is the Greek name for a heavily armed fighter. It is possible that this type of gladiatorial weapon appeared in the 1st-2nd centuries AD. instead of the earlier Samnite. Goplomakh fought in heavy weapons, which included a wide-brimmed closed helmet with a high crest, a bracer made of bronze plates or quilted fabric on his right hand, high bronze greaves and legguards made of soft tissue on both legs. In battle, the goplomakh covered himself with a small bronze shield of a round shape and tried to hit his opponent with a spear. Perhaps he also had a sword or dagger as an additional weapon.

The main opponents of the goplomakhs were the Murmillons or Thracians armed in a similar way. The spear allowed the goplomakh to hit his opponent at a distance exceeding the length of the enemy weapon. On the other hand, the small size of the shield did not provide it with reliable protection in defense and in close combat. He also could not push his opponent with a large shield, as the murmillo did. In a fight, the hoplomah had to adhere to aggressive, offensive tactics, imposing the pace and distance of the battle on his opponent.

Bronze figurine of a goplomakh. Antique collection, Berlin

Hoplomach's Shield

In the images of gladiators, the hoplomah, as a rule, is armed with a round bronze shield, reminiscent of the shields of Greek hoplites or Macedonian phalangites of the Hellenistic era. Several of these shields were found during excavations, and today they are kept in museums and a number of private collections.

The example of the shield from the gladiatorial school in Pompeii shown in this photo has a diameter of 37 cm and weighs 1.6 kg. It is a bronze cladding, fastened on a wooden base that has not been preserved. The front surface of the shield and the rim are decorated with chased patterns in the form of several garlands of silver leaves. In the center is a round silver plate depicting the face of the Gorgon Medusa. The luxury of jewelry does not necessarily indicate that we have a copy intended only for demonstration.

The small size of the shield does not hinder the movement of the warrior at all, however, at the same time, it limits the protective function provided by it. A gladiator armed with such a shield inevitably lost in close combat and therefore had to keep his opponent at a distance.

Hoplomakh and Thracian Leggings

Secutors, murmillons and provocateurs, who wore a large rectangular shield, as a rule, wore only one short greave on their left leg, which was put forward in a combat stance. The goplomakhs and the Thracians, armed with small shields, had to compensate for its insufficient protective properties with the help of additional items of equipment, primarily legguards and greaves. In reliefs and images, they usually wear a pair of leggings on both legs, and their length reaches about the middle of the thighs.

These images correspond to 10 bronze greaves found during excavations of the gladiatorial school in Pompeii. Their length varied from 48 to 58 cm. The upper part of the leggings was made in the form of a wide bell, slightly curved outwards. The diameter indicates that the greaves were worn over a thick quilted webbing. On the leg, they were fixed with a belt passed through three pairs of rings. All leggings were luxuriously decorated with chased relief, symbolic images and engraved ornaments.

Provocateur

Provocateurs ("defying") are already mentioned in the late Republican period. They were a heavily armed type of gladiator whose equipment resembled a secutor. The provocateur wore a large rectangular shield, a helmet without a crest, first open, then completely closed, a metal or soft bracer on his right hand and a shortened bronze greave on his left leg. A feature of his equipment was a small bib of a rectangular or rounded shape. The provocateur's weapon was a short straight sword. In the arena, provocateurs usually fought against each other. Only one inscription that has survived to our time testifies to his battle with the murmillo.

Provocateur helmet

From the reliefs of the 1st century BC. - the beginning of the 1st century AD it can be concluded that at first the provocateurs fought in open-type helmets with cheek pads that were hinged to the lower part of the helmet rim to protect the face, and a wide butt pad to protect the neck and upper back. This form was reminiscent of an army helmet worn at that time by Roman legionnaires. Then, in the first half of the 1st century AD, in imitation of the helmets of other gladiatorial types, their cheek pads increased so that they began to completely cover the face. In front, they closed with each other and were fixed with a special clip, forming a closed visor. So that a fighter dressed in this helmet could see something, a pair of round holes with a diameter of 8 cm were made in it, which were closed from the outside with round lattice plates.

From the helmets worn by the Murmillons and Thracians, the helmet of the provocateur is distinguished by the absence of wide brim. Only in front of the frontal part of the helmet was a visor riveted. On the other hand, it differs from secutor helmets structurally similar to it by a large number of decorations and protruding parts, for example, side tubes for attaching feathers.

Chestplate of the provocateur

As a rule, gladiators performed in the arena with a naked torso, which gave them the opportunity to demonstrate their figure to the public and play with the relief muscles of the chest and shoulders. Only in some reliefs are heavily armed provocateurs depicted wearing a small rectangular plate on their chest to protect the heart area. This piece of equipment is known only from images; not a single copy of the breastplate has yet been found.

Provocateur's shield

Secutors, murmillons and provocateurs were armed with a large rectangular convex shield (scutum), the device of which is described in more detail in the section on the secutor.

Leggings of the provocateur

Provocateur's sword

Retiarius

Retiarii first appeared in the arena at the beginning of the 1st century AD. They were a type of lightly armed fighter whose appearance resembled a fisherman. The retiarius performed dressed in a tunic or loincloth, his left shoulder was covered with a bronze pauldron, and his left hand was covered with a vambrace of printed fabric. The retiarii did not wear other protective equipment and fought with their heads uncovered. The weapon of the retiarius consisted of a trident and a net. In battle, they tried to throw a net on the enemy, in order to then hit him with a trident or dagger, which they held in their left hand.

The usual opponent of the retiarius was secutor, occasionally they could also fight against murmillons.

Exceeding any of his heavily armed opponents in mobility, retiarii could choose tactics and control the pace of the battle. Usually they circled around their opponent for a long time, trying to unbalance him and wear him out with false attacks, after which they themselves could easily flee. When the enemy was exhausted, the retiarius could go on the attack. He used his net to hook the enemy, unbalance him, knock him down and immobilize him.

A huge number of references in sources and inscriptions testifies to the spectacular nature of this kind of fights and their wide popularity among the public.

Mosaic of the 4th century. from the National Museum in Madrid, depicting the duel between the retiarius Calendion and the secutor Astyanax. The bottom panel depicts the beginning of the battle, when the retiarius managed to throw his net over the opponent. The top one depicts its completion. Calendion is wounded and, holding out his hand with a dagger, begs for mercy. His opponent won

Retiarius Trident

The retiarial trident (fuscina or tridens) originated from the fisherman's weapon. It was a short spear with three points. In the images, retiarii usually hold it with two hands: the left one is placed forward, the right behind. With this grip, most of the blows should be applied in the direction from the bottom up. Unfortunately, there is still no archaeological find of a trident, so it is difficult to say what its dimensions are. Judging by the available images, the tips of the trident were small.

On one of the skulls found in the cemetery of gladiators in Ephesus, traces left by the trident of a retiarius were found. The distance between the holes is 5 cm. The inlets are at a large angle. This means that the fatal blow was delivered from above, when the defeated opponent was lying on the ground or kneeling.

Retiarius network

The net of the retiarius (rete) has the shape of a circle with a diameter of about 3 m. Lead sinkers were strengthened along its edges so that the net would straighten when thrown. The retiarius could use the net to hook and pull his sword out of the opponent's hands, or to throw the net on himself. Large cells of the network easily clung to weapons and equipment, it was difficult to immediately reset it. Grasping its edge, the retiarius could confuse his opponent, immobilize or knock him down. With an unsuccessful throw, he could pull the fallen net towards him by the rope that connected to his wrist, after which he would make a new attempt. So that the enemy, grabbing the rope, would not pull him towards himself, the retiarius had a dagger with him, with which he could cut it.

Retiarius Dagger

The retiarius wore a dagger in his belt, which he could use as an additional weapon if he lost his trident. This dagger could look like one of the swords with a short blade 20 - 30 cm long, found during the excavations of the gladiatorial school in Pompeii.

On one of the reliefs depicting a retiarius, his dagger looks like four points on one handle. Until recently, weapons of this form were considered an invention of the artist. However, on one of the bones found during the excavations of the gladiatorial cemetery in Ephesus, a trace of a wound inflicted by four points was found, which proves its real nature.

Retiarius Shoulder

The pauldron (galerus) is one of the characteristic elements of the military equipment of the retiarii. They wore it on the left shoulder, along with a bracer of printed fabric on the left hand. Other gladiators usually wore bracers on their right hand. This feature allowed the retiarius to use his right hand more freely to cast his net. Accordingly, having the left side more protected in comparison with the right, the retiarius in battle had to stand, turning his left side to the enemy.

During the excavations of the gladiatorial school in Pompeii, 3 chased bronze pauldrons were found. One of them, shown in the picture above, is decorated with images of a crab, an anchor, a trident, and the other with cupids and the head of Hercules. The third shows war trophies. The height of the shoulder pad is 30–35 cm, the width is about 30 cm, and the weight is 1.2 kg. The wide brim makes the pauldron more like a small shield that provided some protection to the head, face, neck, and upper chest from top to bottom and from right to left.

Murmillon

Murmillo is a type of heavily armed gladiator, who in the 1st century AD. replaced the earlier gall. The protective armament of the murmillon included a large rectangular shield, a closed helmet with a high plume of feathers and a stylized image of a fish on a crest, bracers on the right hand, and greaves on the left leg. In battle, the murmillo fought with a short straight sword. The same equipment was worn by the secutors, which differed from the murmillons only in a different type of helmet.

The main opponent of the Murmillons were equally heavily armed Thracians and goplomakhs. According to Quintilian, they also had to fight with lightly armed retiarii, but pictorial sources do not confirm this information.

Heavy equipment, the total weight of which was 15–18 kg, required from the fighter developed muscles of the arms and shoulders, which are simply necessary to fight with a heavy shield and sword. Victory in battle and the very life of the murmillo depended on his endurance, since he had to fight enemies whose equipment was better suited for attack than his own. On the other hand, a large shield gave him significant defensive advantages.

The famous supporter of the Murmillons was the emperor Domitian (81-96).

Part of a relief from the burial vault of Gaius Lusius Storax (25-50 AD) depicting a duel of gladiators. Two murmillos are depicted in the center, two Thracians are on the sides

Murmillo Helm

Gladiator helmets (galea) are known from a large number of images and archaeological finds. Most of the latter were made during the excavations of the gladiatorial school in Pompeii. They are divided into two large types - with margins and without margins. Each of them, in turn, is divided into two more subtypes.

The helmets that belonged to the Murmillans are easily identified on the basis of a large number of relief and mosaic images. These helmets are wide-brimmed, horizontal and nearly flat all around in early models, and rising in front in an arched fashion in later models. From above, the dome of the helmet is decorated with a massive box-shaped crest, into which a magnificent plume of feathers or a horse's mane was inserted. A pair of large cheek pads were hinged to the lower part of the helmet rim from the sides, covering not only the cheekbones, but also the face of its owner. In front, the cheek pads closed with each other, forming a closed visor. Their lower part was arched forward to protect the throat. For vision, there were large holes in the cheek-pieces, which were closed from the outside with lattice plates.

All gladiator helmets are made of bronze with a thickness of 1 - 1.5 mm. The surface of the helmets was richly decorated with chased images and engravings. Part of the surface of the helmet could be covered with gilding or silver, or tinned with tin to imitate it. The weight of the helmet varies from 3.8 to 5 kg, which is about twice the weight of a soldier's helmet. True, the legionnaires had to wear their helmet throughout the day, and the gladiator put it on only before the battle, which lasted 10-15 minutes.

Murmillo Shield

The secutor, murmillon and provocateur were armed with a large rectangular convex shield (scutum), the device of which is described in more detail in the section on the secutor.

Murmillo Leggings

Secutors, murmillons, and provocateurs used similar leggings, which are discussed in more detail in the section on the secutor.

Murmillo sword

Secutors, murmillons and provocateurs used the same swords, which are discussed in more detail in the section on the secutor.

Thracian

The Thracians began to compete in gladiatorial contests at least as early as the 1st century BC, when the Romans first encountered them during the wars in the Balkan Peninsula. Over time, a complex of weapons characteristic of them developed, which included a closed helmet with wide brim, a bracer for the right hand and a pair of high greaves. The Thracians held a small rectangular (rarely round) shield in their left hand, and a sword with a curved blade in their right hand.

In the arena, Thracian gladiators usually fought murmillons or hoplomachs, who had heavy weapons similar to their own. Armed with a less cumbersome shield, the Thracian had greater mobility than the murmillo and could impose pace and tactics on him. In contrast to the goplomakh, who kept his opponent at a long distance, the Thracian sought to converge with him chest to chest. In close combat, the curved blade allowed him to deceive the enemy, change the direction of the attack very quickly, and cut the weakly protected backs of the arms and legs.

The cunning and deceit of the Thracians were repeatedly noted in literary monuments. Their famous supporter was the emperor Caligula, who ruled in 37-41.

Thracian helmet

The helmet of a Thracian gladiator is easily identifiable based on the large number of images available. Structurally, it is similar to the murmillon helmet and is a headband with wide brim and large cheek pads that completely cover the face of its owner. For vision and breathing, there were large holes in the upper part of the cheek-pieces, which were closed from the outside by an openwork lattice suspended on hinges or pins. The surface of the helmets was covered with chased images and engravings on mythological subjects.

A distinctive feature of the Thracian helmets was a high flat crest adorned with a griffin head. The helmet was also decorated with feathers, which visually increased the height of the warrior and gave him an elegant look.

Fragment of the decoration of the crest of the Thracian gladiator's helmet, made in the form of a griffin

Thracian shield

Thracian gladiators were armed with a rectangular, rarely round, shield (parma), which had a smaller size than their opponents. Structurally, it was arranged in the same way as the large shield of secutors, provocateurs and murmillons. It consisted of several layers of wooden planks glued perpendicular to each other. Outside, the shield was pasted over with canvas, then with leather, and, finally, richly painted. Variants of decorations can be observed on the example of numerous mosaics of the Roman period. Such a shield provided good protection for the upper part of the fighter's body.

Insufficient protection of the lower abdomen and thighs had to be compensated for with a wide belt and leggings. Due to the light weight of his shield, the Thracian invariably outperformed his heavily armed opponent in mobility and could impose on him the time and distance of the battle.

Thracian sword (sika)

Thracian gladiators were armed with a curved sword (sica), which originated from single-edged curved blades common during the 3rd-2nd centuries BC. in the north of the Balkan Peninsula. The length of the original finds of this weapon ranges from 40 to 50 cm, the width is 4 cm. The concave blade of the Shiki had excellent cutting properties.

During the excavations of the Roman camp of Oberaden in Germany, a wooden sword with a curved blade was discovered. The length of the blade is 30 cm, the hilt and handle have a characteristic Roman shape. It is most likely that the wooden sword was a training weapon and was lost during the evacuation of the camp in 8 BC.

Thracian Leggings

The goplomakhs and the Thracians used the same leggings, which are described in more detail in the section on the goplomakh.

Violent sports were part of the Etruscan funerary rite as human sacrifice.

The Romans adopted the Etruscan funeral rite and changed it over time, they stopped killing the participants in the mortal combat immediately, but forced them to fight with swords in their hands near the grave of the deceased, the weak died in the duel, and strong fighter remained alive, causing the delight of those present. The Romans first saw this cruel spectacle in 264 BC. e. in the bull market , where three pairs of gladiators fought at the wake of Brutus Pere, arranged by his sons. The spectacle seemed so unusual and remarkable to the Romans that this event was entered into the annals of Rome.

The connection between gladiatorial games and commemorations has never been forgotten, they were called "funeral games", and the official name is mumus ("duty"), the debt of the living towards the deceased.

In 105 BC. e. gladiatorial games were introduced to public spectacles in Rome . From now on, the state entrusted its magistrates with the care of arranging gladiatorial games, and they became the favorite spectacle, both in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. Caesar in 65 BC uh . arranged gladiator games, in which 320 pairs of gladiators took part. His enemies were frightened: not only these armed fellows were terrible, it was terrible that luxurious games became a sure way to win the favor of the people and secure votes in the elections. In 63 BC. uh . by the proposal Cicero passed a law , which forbade a candidate for magistrates for two years before the election to "give gladiators." No one, however, could forbid a private person to "give" them under the pretext of a commemoration for his relative, especially if the latter bequeathed to his heir to arrange games.

Depending on weapons and specifics their participation in fights distinguished the following types of gladiators:

Andabat (from the Greek word "άναβαται" - "raised, elevated") Andabata fighters were dressed in chain mail, like eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights in medieval times. jousting tournaments.

Bestiary were armed with a dart or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but criminals (noxia), sentenced to fight with predatory animals, with a high probability of death of the sentenced. Later, bestiaries became well-trained gladiators, specializing in combat with various exotic predators using darts. The fights were organized in such a way that the beasts had little chance of defeating the bestiary.

Bustuary. These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased at ritual games during the funeral rite.

Velit - foot gladiators armed with a dart with a cord tied to it for throwing. Named after units of the early Republican Roman army.

dimacher (from the Greek "διμάχαιρος" - " carrying two daggers" ). They fought without a helmet and a shield with two daggers in each hand. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, their arms and legs were bandaged with tight bandages, sometimes they wore leggings.

Gaul. The fighters were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.

Goplomakh (from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter"). The fighters were dressed in quilted, trouser-like clothing for legs, possibly made of thick cotton or linen fabric, loincloth, belt, greaves. From the armor they put on the forearms (manika) of the right hand, and a helmet with fields and with a stylized griffin on the crest, decorated with a brush of feathers on top and single feathers on each side. From weapons they carried a very small round shield, made of one sheet of thick bronze, examples of shields have been preserved in Pompeii. The fighters were put up for fights against the Mirmillons or the Thracians.

Lakveary - "fighter with lasso". Lakvearii could be a type of retiarii that tried to catch their rivals with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.

Mirmillon - "mormylos" - "sea fish", fighters they mastered a helmet with a stylized fish on a crest, armor for the forearm (maniku), a loincloth and belt, leggings on right leg, thick windings covering the top of the foot, and very short armor. The Mirmillons were armed with a gladius sword (40-50 cm long) and a large rectangular shield, like the legionnaires. They were put up for battle against the Thracians, Retiarii, sometimes also against the hoplomachi.

Pegnaria used a whip, a club and a shield, which was attached to the left hand with straps.

Provocateur - "applicant". The fighters were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a maniku on the right arm, and a helmet with a visor, without brim and crest, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The provocateurs were armed with a gladius and a large rectangular shield. Exhibited for battles with the Samnites or other provocateurs.

Retiarius - "fighter with a net." They p appeared at the dawn of the Roman Empire. The fighters were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. Except for a loincloth supported by a wide belt (balteus) and a large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius did not have any clothes, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower face. There were retiarii who played female roles in the arena (“retiarius tunicatus”), which differed from ordinary retiarii in that they were dressed in a tunic. The retiarii usually fought with the secutors, but sometimes with the myrmillons.

Rudiarium - a gladiator who deserved liberation and was awarded a wooden sword - rudis, but decided to remain a gladiator. Not all rudiarii continued to fight in the arena, there was a special hierarchy among them: they could be trainers, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. Rudiarii fighters were very popular among the public, as they had vast experience and one could expect a truly addictive gladiatorial game.

Samnites - an ancient type of heavily armed fighters, which disappeared in the early imperial period, with its name indicates the origin of gladiator fights. Historical Samnites were influential union of italic tribes who lived in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom The Romans fought wars from 326 to 291 BC. e. The equipment of the Samnites was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.

Secutor - this type of fighters was specially intended for fights with retiarii.

Sagittaria - mounted archers armed with a flexible bow capable of firing an arrow at a long distance.

Secutors were equipped with armor and weapons, large rectangular shields and gladiuses. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face, except for two holes for the eyes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their rival. The helmet is round and smooth so that the net of the retiarius cannot catch on it.

Skissor (scissor, “one who cuts”, “cutting”) - a gladiator who was armed with a short sword (gladius) and instead of a shield had a cutting weapon - two small swords that had one handle or, put on an iron hollow rod with a sharp horizontal tip. With this cutting weapon, the skissor delivered blows that led to minor wounds of the opponent, but the wounds bled very much. Otherwise, the skissor was similar to a secutor, except for the additional protection of the right arm from the shoulder to the elbow, which consisted of many iron plates fastened together with strong leather cords. The helmet and protective ammunition for secutors and skissors were the same

Tertiarii also called "Suppositicius" - "replacing". Some competitions involved three gladiators. First, the first two fought each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called tertiary - "third".

Thracians equipped with the same armor as the goplomakhs. The Thracians wore a great helmet covering the whole head and adorned with a griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest, the Griffin was the symbol of the goddess of retribution, Nemesis. The Thracians wore a small round shield (parmula), and two large greaves. Their weapon was the Thracian curved sword-axe - sicca, about 34 cm long. Thracians fought with the Myrmillons or the Hoplomakhs.

Venators arranged demonstrative hunting for wild animals, without fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. They performed animal tricks—putting their hand in a lion's mouth, riding a camel with lions on a leash by their side, making an elephant walk on a tightrope (Seneca Ep. 85.41). Venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of the gladiator fights.

Ekvit ("horseman"). In Sanskrit: - horse. In early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators were dressed in scaly armor, wearing a medium-sized round cavalry shield ( parma equestris), a helmet with fields, without a crest, but with two decorative tassels. In Roman times, they wore a forearm armor (manica) on their right arm, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other bare-chested gladiators), and a belt. Equites started the fight on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hasta), they dismounted and continued to fight with a short sword (gladius). Equits usually only fought other Equits.

Essedarius - "chariot fighter", (from the Latin name of the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). Essedaria are mentioned in many descriptions from the 1st century AD. e., may have been first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain.

Pregenaries in performed at the beginning of the competition to "warm up" the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, pipes and water organs (hydraulis).

Why did Roman citizens become gladiators?
People who took the "gladiator's oath" were deprived of many rights of free citizens, including the right to their own lives, which depended on the outcome of the battle. Perhaps this freed the citizen from debts, and made it possible to get away from creditors, and even earn money if the audience liked the arena during the gladiator fight. Apparently, for many Roman citizens, gladiator fights were a good job - " shod, dressed, have a roof over your head and live on everything ready.

Gladiators had to live in special gladiatorial schools, where they studied the art of gladiatorial combat under the supervision of freedmen, that is, former gladiators. Naturally, there were doctors, masseurs, and cooks at their service, providing the gladiators with everything necessary for training and providing professional fighters.

A good incentive for a bold, dexterous and warlike gladiator was a high salary. Even the gladiator slaves had every right to a part of the reward for winning in the arena, they got the coins that the spectators threw into the arena during the battle. If a former gladiator, having been released, wished to remain in the arena, he received a generous reward. Emperor Tiberius offered a thousand gold coins to one of the freed gladiator slaves if he returned to the arena.

In the morning before the gladiator competition, hunting for wild animals (venatio) took place, in the afternoon the execution of criminals sentenced to death was carried out, they were thrown to be torn to pieces by animals. Before the fight, the gladiators dined at public banquets, together with local residents. Before the start of the gladiator fights, the fighters entered the arena, arranging a kind of parade to preliminarily tune the public and demonstrate their combat form, then the gladiator fights began.

The number of gladiator fights depended on the number of participating rivals. Usually the fights lasted until the end of the day, and each duel lasted an average of about ten to fifteen minutes.

A gladiatorial duel was a hand-to-hand fight of fighters with different weapons. After one of the fighters was injured or weakened, he threw the shield to the ground and raised his finger up (ad digitum), indicating his desire to surrender and stop the fight. The judge of the gladiatorial duel was obliged to intervene and stop the fight, leaving the fate of the defeated mumeraria (the owner of the gladiators). The decision he made sometimes depended on the opinion of the assembled public - he could spare (missio) the vanquished, or even grant freedom to one or both fighters, but such a release did not happen often, since this brought only losses to the mumerarius. Mumerary entered the arena and handed to the happy gladiator wooden sword (rudis), which meant that the gladiator was no longer a slave, but a free man.

Mumerarius could raise his thumb up (pollitz verso) or point it down - this meant the decision of the fate of the vanquished. The audience also expressed their opinion by showing the thumbs up, which meant "missio" (mercy), which allows the gladiator to return to the ludus and prepare for the next fight. The thumb down meant that the winner of the fight must inflict a fatal blow (coup de grace) on the defeated fighter.

There was a double attitude towards male gladiators in Rome, they were loved and despised at the same time. Some citizens of Rome looked at the warlike gladiators as their idols, others treated them with contempt, like barbarians.

For a noble Roman, it was a shame to participate in gladiator fights in the arena, and participation in military campaigns, battles and wars was considered military prowess.

Autocrats - Volunteer Gladiators could not live in gladiator schools, but take lessons from private trainers or visit special studios for training. Autocrats entered the gladiatorial arena quite rarely, two or three times a year.

There is an opinion that all gladiators were doomed to death, but in reality this is not so! Of course, gladiators died, including by decision of the public. However, not as often as it is commonly believed. It was very expensive to educate, teach martial arts, and maintain such a fighter. It was much more profitable to receive money from the audience for the performance of a good gladiator fighter than to pay for his burial.

Fighting in the ancient Roman arena was not exclusively a male affair. In 63 a.d. er. Emperor Nero issued a decree allowing free women to participate in gladiatorial tournaments. After him, Pozzuoli allows Ethiopian women to fight.

Women in the gladiatorial arena fought like men, and trained before the performance, like male gladiators. It is known that most of the gladiators in the Roman Empire were slaves, but some citizens voluntarily became gladiators and took an oath that they agreed "to be doomed, to be beaten, and to die by the sword" (uri, vinciri, uerberari, ferroque necari). By the end of the Roman Republic, about half of the Roman gladiators were volunteers - a huge number, given that the fighting took place not only in Rome, but also in many major cities of the country.

Women participated in fights, lived and died as fighters. The life of female gladiators was perhaps harder than that of men, daily physical training prepared them for the possession of various types of weapons during the gladiator fight. Some Roman women, trampling all the limits of all decency, attended special studios, while others trained with their gladiator fathers.

Roman historian Tacitus with condemnation mentions women with a fairly high social status who participated in gladiator fights for the sake of entertainment, and considers these performances in the arena to be their shame. “This year the gladiatorial games were no less magnificent than in the past. However, many ladies from high society and people of senatorial rank have dishonored themselves by appearing in the arena. In general, Roman society considered women's gladiator fights reprehensible and unworthy!

The Roman historian Suetonius (c. 69 - 122 AD) spoke of gladiator fights involving women, under the emperor Domitian, who outdid Caligula, Nero and Heliogabal in his entertainment. Dio Cassius (ancient Greek Δίων ὁ Κάσσιος,) wrote that these gladiatorial fights of women were held by torchlight late at night, at the end of the whole gladiatorial performance.

Roman poet Statius in a poem about gladiator fights under the emperor Domitian, he reports that “Moors, women and pygmies” participated in the battles. “Sex, unfit for weapons, rivals men in battle! You'd think it was a gang of Amazons fighting."
According to the testimony of the Roman senator and historian Tacitus (c. 56 AD - 177 AD), even noble and rich women did not hesitate to appear in the arena, who wanted to perform in the gladiatorial arena and receive the laurels of the winners.

The Roman poet-satirist Decem Juvenal in Satire IV (55 AD - 127 AD), denouncing the vices of Roman society, caustically ridiculed female gladiators: and described the gladiatorial performance in detail:
“Have you heard that women need battle capes and oil to fight?
Have you seen the pieces of wood that they beat and crumble,
Skillful techniques punching them through with a sword or a spear?
It's about the girls who trumpet for the glory of Flora.
Or maybe they are preparing themselves to enter the arena for a real fight?
But is it proper for decent women to put their head in a helmet,
Despising your gender with which you were born?
They love men's things, but they don't want to be men
After all, small things (as they believe) delight their lives!
What "pride" does a husband feel at the sight of a market where
His wife seems to be for sale - in belts, shields and skins!
Listen to her grunts and moans as she toils hard, parrying and attacking;
Look at her neck being bent by the heavy helmet.
See how her legs are bandaged like tree trunks
Laugh as she drops her armor and weapons and reaches for the goblet.
How the daughters of our praetors and consuls are degrading!
Have you seen bare-breasted Amazons against wild boars at the games?
Isn't it more disgusting than gladiatorial girls and naked whores?

It is quite obvious that female gladiatorial fights are not fiction at all, but a fact captured in ancient literature and history! Archaeological finds confirm the existence of female gladiators in ancient Rome, inscriptions of a local magistrate from Ostia about the organization of female gladiator fights, burials female gladiators, bas-relief from Helicarnassus , which shows two women in secutor gear. They wear belts, greaves and plates on their arms. Each woman is armed with a sword and shield, but both fight with bare heads and bare chests. Their names are indicated under the images and confirm that they are women - one is called Amazonia, the other Achilles. The inscription at the top in Latin means "missae sunt", that is, both of them, or one of them, received an honorary exemption from the fight or the so-called "mercy" (missio) from the public watching the battle.

Legend and Achilles.

Achillia of Pergamon, a Roman province in Asia Minor, was the daughter of the 'castor' of Pergamon. The years of her life fell on the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ‘the Wise’. In 162 AD, when her life changed dramatically, she was about 20 years old.

Unlike her noble peers, Achille was an extraordinary girl, had a large, strong physique and a cocky character. Since it was her father's job to organize gladiatorial games for the people of Pergamon, his daughter was intimately familiar with the gladiator business. When she was 17 years old, she began to attend the city's 'ludum' (gladiator school), where she watched gladiator training and fierce fights. Achilles was no different from other noble women who were not indifferent to gladiators; they openly admired their courage and did not miss the gladiator fights. Achille began to take lessons in gladiatorial combat from the head of the school and former gladiator Partakos. In Ludum, she met the famous scientist and healer Claudius Galen, who studied human anatomy on the wounded and killed gladiators, and later became the personal physician of Emperor Aurelius. Galen was about thirty years old, and he fell in love with an attractive young girl. Galen did not dissuade Achilles from practicing gladiatorial art, but rather taught her the basics of human anatomy, showing the most vulnerable and painful points of the body for blows. Since Achilleia was left-handed from birth, Partakos taught her how to use this advantage when fighting right-handers.
This knowledge helped her to improve Achilles in the art of martial arts, she was preparing to really fight in the arena. While training with a wooden sword, Achille mastered the basics of the gladiatorial art, as well as some wrestling techniques. At the age of 19, she competed in a women's gladiatorial match for the first time. Her skill exceeded all expectations, she was a strong and beautiful girl.

A rival for Achilles was quickly found, it was Anahita, a prisoner captured in the Parthian army. She was a real warrior and fought in the gladiatorial arena of Smyrna. Anahita was so belligerent and fearless that she was nicknamed "Amazonia". Achilia and Amazonia soon had to meet in the gladiatorial arena. Well acquainted with the basics of the gladiatorial art, After intense training Achillia fought with the wild and ferocious Sarmatian warrior Amazonia, who fought like a tigress, but was wounded and lost the battle to a more experienced and stronger opponent. Achilles' gladiatorial career ended as abruptly as it began,

The emperor's wife, Faustina, famous for her waywardness and cruelty, loved gladiator fights and tried not to miss a single one. After the Roman victory over the Parthians in Armenia, Faustina toured the provinces and attended gladiatorial games in the cities of Asia Minor. In Halicarnassus, south of Pergamon, she saw the duel between Achilles and Anahita. The formidable and invincible Anahita struck Achilles with a deft blow, and she asked for ‘missio’ (mercy). The audience was in good spirits, and the defeated girl was given life. Faustina was amazed at how fiercely and skillfully the warlike female gladiators fought and ordered a sculpture carved in stone in memory of the brave warriors. A talented local sculptor completed the order, and the bas-relief depicting Achilles and Amazonia has survived to our time and reminds of these two female warriors.

The bas-relief of fighting female gladiators has preserved this duel for centuries "as an example to posterity."

Gladiator fights were banned in 400 AD when Christianity was adopted in the Roman Empire.

2017-11-12

Arena and blood: Roman gladiators between life and death Goroncharovsky Vladimir Anatolyevich

Chapter 4 Types of gladiators and their weapons

Types of gladiators and their weapons

What are the main types of gladiators developed by the time when in 79 AD. e. Pompeian barracks, the excavations of which yielded the best surviving examples of their weapons, were buried under a hail of volcanic stones and ash? What were the features of their equipment, suggesting a certain combat technique? We note right away that, regarding weapons, the opinions of researchers completely coincide in no more than six of its types. The fact is that by the beginning of the first centuries of our era, certain types of gladiators, originally corresponding to peoples hostile to Rome, had already disappeared or had changed somewhat. In the surviving pictorial materials, the type called "retiarius" (from Latin rete "network") is most easily identified. He was armed with a net about 3 m in diameter, tied to the wrist with a rope, a large trident with a thick wooden handle (fuscina) and a dagger (Fig. 10).

Rice. 10. Tomb relief of the retiarius Martial. 3rd century

Of the means of protection, the half-naked retiarius had only a multilayer quilted bracer (manika) made of fabric or leather fastened to the left hand and a metal pauldron (galley) fastened to it, partly covering the neck (Fig. 11). The lower abdomen was covered only with a cloth loincloth (subligacule), which was a brightly colored piece of fabric in the shape of an isosceles triangle with a side of about 1.2–1.5 m. Two ends of it were tied in front, the third was passed between the legs and through the knot and freely hung in front. The upper part of the bandage was covered by a belt (balteus) up to 8–12 cm wide, fastened at the back with two hooks at one end, which entered holes at the opposite end. Bronze plates were traditionally attached to the leather base of the belt. In some cases, the legs below the knees were protected by thick quilted windings (fascia) made of many layers of wool or linen, fastened with leather straps.

Rice. 11. Retiarius (according to S. Wisdom):

2 - lead weights;

3 - actions of the retiarius in battle;

4 - long rope network;

5 - trident;

7 - galley mounts;

8 - manica;

9 - medallion;

10 - headband

The total weight of the equipment of the retiarius was only about 7-8 kg, and this lack of heavy weapons made him very unprestigious in the eyes of the Romans, since he was constantly on the move, giving rise to mocking ridicule. Indeed, in the absence of armor, he had more to rely on his speed and agility. He fought, like most other gladiators, barefoot, which is obviously due to the desire for greater stability on the sand of the arena during the duel. The retiarius held the net in a well-protected left hand in order to prevent the enemy from inflicting a wound during the throw. Usually it was a heavily armed secutor - a type of gladiator, which will be discussed in detail later. If successful, the retiarius sought to quickly entangle and knock him down, and then deliver a decisive blow. If the opponent managed to take possession of the net, the retiarius cut the rope at the wrist with a dagger and released himself. This pair - retiarius and secutor - reminded the audience of a duel between a fisherman and a fish. This comparison was intensified when the “fisherman” was placed on a high platform, where two narrow boards with steps were led, and the retiarius had to protect him from the attack of two secutors at once with the help of stones collected in heaps (Fig. 12). So, what did the secutor (lit.: "chaser") look like? His weapons included a helmet, a rectangular shield (scutum), a greave on his left leg, a manica on his right arm, and a sword. The streamlined helmet had an extremely smooth surface, small holes for the eyes, no more than 3 cm in diameter, and a rounded crest in the form of a fish fin. Accordingly, hooking him with a net or hitting him with a trident was an extremely difficult task. The tactics of the secutor were diametrically different from the mode of action of the retiarius. This is practically the same mirmillon, but with an improved attack technique. To eliminate the advantages of the enemy, he sought close combat, but it was impossible to predict its outcome. Suetonius has a story about how, under Caligula, “five retiarii gladiators in tunics fought against five secutors, succumbed without a fight and were already waiting for death, when suddenly one of the vanquished grabbed his trident and killed all the winners” (Suet. Cal. 30. 3). The fact that such a variant of the development of a duel between retiarii and secutors was not at all an exceptional event is proved by a fragment of a relief from the 3rd century BC. from the tombstone of a retiarius on the Appian Way. There are images of five corresponding pairs of gladiators, and the retiarii in all cases are the winners. Judging by the number of secutors killed, in this case the fight is sine missio, that is, "without leave."

Rice. 12. The duel of the retiarius with the secutor on the platform. 2nd–3rd centuries

The forerunners of the secutors in their opposition to the retiarii were the myrmillons (Fig. 13), according to the lexicographer of the period of the late Empire of Festus, previously called the Gauls. According to some, the Gauls appeared in the arena after the conquests of Julius Caesar; according to another point of view - much earlier. In any case, both names are already in the 1st c. n. e. have become synonymous. The word "mirmillon" comes either from the name of the sea fish (mormyllos), which was depicted on the helmet, or from murex ("sea snail", "cliff"), in both versions there is a marine theme. The duel of gladiators of these particular types, as the most characteristic and impressive, was described in detail by R. Giovagnoli in the first chapter of his novel Spartacus, although images of retiarii dating back to before the turn of our era have not yet been found. As you know, in the novel the battle ends with the death of the retiarius who lost the fight, but in reality, as already noted, everything could be different. Valery Maxim, who completed his work entitled “Memorable deeds and sayings” around 30, preserved a story about a duel between a retiarius and a myrmillo at the gladiatorial games in Syracuse, when it was the retiarius who knocked down his opponent and was about to finish him off with a dagger (Val. Max. I.7.8). Even having lost the net, with a trident he could inflict terrible blows on the head or legs of the enemy, catch and knock out the blade of his sword from his hands, or press hard on the edge of the shield.

Rice. 13. Terracotta figurine of myrmillon

Mirmillon fought naked to the waist, which made it possible to demonstrate to the public a powerful torso and muscle play. His defensive weapons were represented by a helmet, a manica on his right arm, a short greave on his left leg, and a scutum shield. The characteristic features of the Myrmillon helmets were a visor, wide brim and a huge pommel decorated with a plume of feathers or horsehair in the shape of a fish fin. One of them, kept in the collection of the Berlin Museum, was even silvered, like fish scales, and in the sun it must have been a truly dazzling sight. The greave with thick quilted windings worn under it protected the leg of the myrmillon only below the knee. Above, the scutum served as protection, covering the fighter to the very chin. The only offensive weapon was an ordinary gladius - which was sometimes tied with a belt to the arm so as not to be dropped when colliding with the enemy. In total, the weight of the armament of the mirmillon was 16–18 kg, of which up to 7.5 kg fell on the shield. It is possible that this type of gladiator, which more closely matched the Roman legionnaire in terms of armament, was used in the arena to recreate the picture of battles between the Romans and their numerous enemies.

An arbelas, a gladiator with equipment in the form of a helmet, scaly armor or chain mail to the knees, quilted or recruited from metal strips of manica on his right arm and short leggings (Fig. 14), could also resist the retiarius in the arena. The helmet usually had a longitudinal crest. Instead of a shield in the left hand of an arbelas, we see on the surviving reliefs a strange tool in the form of a tubular bracer, ending in a semicircular blade. Apparently, it was intended to cut the network of the retiarius and parry the blows of his trident, and on occasion could inflict terrible lacerations on the enemy. In the right hand, there was a gladius or dagger. The total weight of the weapons was to reach 22–26 kg. Without a shield, with two swords or curved daggers, dimachers also performed. A relief from Phrygia that has come down to us depicts a fighter in a helmet with a visor and brim, with greaves and quilted windings on his legs. His defensive armament, which was not worked out in detail, most likely consisted of chain mail, otherwise close combat for him with two short daggers would be impossible.

Rice. 14. Relief depicting a battle between a retiarius and an arbelas. 2nd–3rd centuries

The name of another type of gladiator - goplomakh - is of Greek origin and means "fighting with weapons." His equipment included a spear in combination with a short sword or dagger (Fig. 15). The minimum of clothing was limited, as with the myrmillon, to a loincloth and a wide belt. The head was protected by a helmet with a visor, wide brim and a pommel decorated with a plume. Two curved feathers were stuck into the sides of the helmet. A small round hoplomakh shield with a diameter of about 45 cm had a strongly curved, cupped shape. It was made of a thick sheet of bronze and was very heavy, which made it possible to use it not only for defense, but also for attack. In the hand holding the shield, the hoplomach clutched a short dagger, a manica was put on the right hand. The small size of the shield was compensated by high, reaching to the middle of the thigh, leggings worn over quilted windings, the upper part of which was hidden under a loincloth. The entire set of weapons is unlikely to weigh more than 17-18 kg. Depending on the tastes of the public, in various regions of the empire, the hoplomah usually performed in tandem with a mirmillo or a Thracian.

Rice. 15. Goplomakh and provocateur (according to S. Wisdom):

A - goplomakh: 1 - round parmula; 2 - spear; 6 - leggings; 7, 8 - types of leggings; 9 - method of fastening leggings; B - provocateur: 3 - helmet with feathers; 4 - a helmet of the usual type; 5 - helmet from Haukidon (England)

The last of the types of gladiators mentioned appeared in Rome quite a long time ago. During the war of 87–85. BC e., which the commander Sulla led in the East against the Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator, many Thracians who served in his army turned out to be in Roman captivity. And so the organizers of the next games came up with the idea to release Thracian gladiators into the arena (Fig. 16). True, this name turned out to be rather conditional, since the armament of the Thracians cannot be called “ethnic”. They can easily be confused with hoplomakhs due to the manica on the right arm, quilted wraps on the legs, high greaves and a helmet with a brim and a visor in which many holes were punched. The helmet, as a rule, had a characteristic, easily recognizable curved crest (Fig. 17), often in the form of a griffin's head. This mythological image symbolized Nemesis, the goddess of retribution, whose small temples were located in many places of the ancient world, where gladiatorial fights were held. A plume of feathers (krista) or two feathers on the sides could serve as a decoration for the helmet. The Thracian was significantly distinguished by a small shield of almost square shape and a small dagger (sika) with a blade that curved at a blunt, and sometimes at a right angle (Fig. 16, 5). The severity of the armament of the Mirmillon, the Goplomakh and the Thracian was almost the same, but the Thracian had to show greater mobility, conduct a maneuverable battle. Spectators expected from gladiators of this type deft dashes, precisely calculated agile movements, which made it easy to evade the opponent's attacks or quickly go on the attack. Only the speed of action, given the small size of the shield, could save his life.

Rice. 16. Thracian and secutor (by S. Wisdom):

A- Thracian, V- secutor; 1 - short shield; 2 - manica from metal plates; 2a- manica design; 2b- leather belt buckle for fastening the manica; 3 - a helmet with a crest; Per- grille holes for the eyes in the helmet; 4 - gladius; 5 - sika; 6 - scutum; 7 - helmet design; 8 - leggings

Rice. 17. Marble relief depicting a Thracian gladiator, found in the vicinity of Smyrna in 1867.

Another early and very popular type of gladiator is a provocateur who performed half-naked (a bandage and a metal balteus belt) with a manica on his right hand and a high greave on his left leg. A helmet with cheek pads, as a rule, of an army model, a large rectangular shield and a sword with a straight blade resembled the armament of a Roman legionnaire. A striking feature was the presence on the chest of a large metal plate (cardiophylax) in the form of a rectangle or crescent, which was attached to the back with crossed straps. From the 2nd century the helmet of the provocateur became more closed, with a wide rear field reliably covering the neck. The cheek pads were replaced by a visor with holes for the eyes, closed by bars. The shield differed from the scutum by the presence of a vertical metal rib. The weight of weapons in a lightweight version was 14–15 kg. Usually provocateurs fought in pairs, and only in some cases other types of gladiators acted as their opponents.

Lightly armed gladiator riders (equites) also converged in the arena. They started the fight using leaf-shaped spears, and when they broke, then, once on the ground, they continued it with short swords. Usually this moment was depicted in the works of ancient fine art. The equite's head was protected by a rounded helmet with a visor and wide brim, sometimes with two feathers on the sides. Other protective elements were a round cavalry shield (parma equestris) made of thick embossed leather with a diameter of about 60 cm and a manica on the right hand. At the beginning of our era, judging by the surviving images, they performed in scaly shells (lorica squamata), later - in simple belted sleeveless tunics with wide vertical colored stripes. In some cases, the legs of the riders were protected by quilted fascia overlays.

Much is still unclear in relation to the essedarii (charioteers) mentioned by a number of ancient authors and in various inscriptions. The term itself comes from the name of a light two-wheeled Celtic chariot and has been in use since at least the middle of the 1st century BC. Accordingly, it can be assumed that chariot fights came into use after 43 AD. when Britain was conquered during the reign of Claudius. The desire to entertain the public could well have prompted the emperor to include in the program of gladiatorial games an unusual chariot fight for the Romans. Here is how Julius Caesar, who was the first to attempt to capture the island, described them: “A kind of battle from chariots goes like this. First, they are driven around in all directions and fired, and for the most part they upset the enemy ranks with the already terrible sight of horses and the sound of wheels; then, having made their way into the gaps between the squadrons, the British jump off the chariots and fight on foot ... And thanks to daily experience and exercise, the British achieve the ability to stop the horses at full gallop even on steep cliffs, quickly delay and turn them, jump on the drawbar, stand on the yoke and quickly jump into the chariot" (Caes. De bello gall. IV. 33).

The performance of the Essedarii most likely began with a demonstration of the art of driving a chariot, then, as in the case of the equites, the equestrian battle turned into a duel of foot fighters. Not so long ago, M. Junkelman suggested that images of those gladiators, whose equipment cannot be correlated with any other type, be attributed to essedaria. Following this principle, attempts were made to highlight the characteristic features of their weapons: a brimless helmet with a visor (sometimes with two feathers), a curved oval shield, a manica on the right arm, and short windings on the legs. Additionally, the following observation helps to attribute gladiators with a curved oval shield and a corresponding set of other weapons as essedarii: on those reliefs where the details of the surface of this shield are worked out, an elongated umbon is clearly visible - a convex metal plate associated with a longitudinal stiffener. Such a shield was called "thureos" and became known in the ancient world thanks to the Celts, which included the Gauls, the Britons, and the Asia Minor Galatians. In Greco-Roman art, the oval Celtic shield was often a kind of ethnic emblem, in this case quite logical for equipment of the gladiator type, associated with its origin in Britain.

There is very little information about such gladiators as indabat (fought blindly, in a deaf helmet without slits for the eyes), orders (perhaps with the armament of the light infantryman of the Republic period of the same name), crupellarium (had solid iron armor), lakverariy (a kind of retiarius, but instead of lasso nets and short spear), sagittarium (with powerful composite bow, in a conical helmet and scaly armor), Samnite (apparently, the set of weapons included a helmet with a crest, a three-disc shell, a large shield, a greave on the left leg, a spear and a sword).

We will dwell separately on such a figure from among those who performed in the arena with weapons, like a venator, who fought exclusively with wild animals. The equipment of a fighter of this type until the middle of the 1st century BC. n. e. it was very reminiscent of the vestments of heavily armed gladiators: from clothes - loincloths or tunics, quilted windings on the legs; from defensive weapons - leggings, manica, a shield (round, oval or rectangular), from offensive weapons - a sword and a spear. To characterize the weapons of the Venators at this stage, of greatest interest is a part of the relief discovered in Rome, in the Orsini Palace, during the construction of which marble slabs from the theater of Marcellus were used. The plot of the relief echoes the event that marked Grand opening theater by Emperor Augustus in 13 BC. e. - a grand venazio, in which 600 wild animals took part. We see here the fight of several venators with a lion, a leopard and a bear (Fig. 18). One of them, armed with a sword, in an open helmet and scaly shell, knocked down by a lion, lies on the ground. In the mouth of this beast is the hand of another unfortunate "hunter". Both venators on the right side of the relief are shown in tunics with open right shoulders, helmets with a crest bent forward, they are armed with square shields and short swords. Let us especially note one more interesting detail - these are wide belts shown on all animals, connected on the back and equipped with a ring. The fact is that in the cages under the arena they were firmly tied to these rings in a special way so that the animals would not injure themselves with too sudden movements. In this case, a bear is tied to the ring with a thick rope, apparently to equalize the chances of man and beast. From the second half of the 1st c. n. e. the heavy equipment of the venators, which did not provide the drama expected by the public when a person met an animal, changed radically. Their main attire was a tunic, short fascias appeared on their legs, and only a short hunting spear (venabul) was used as the only weapon. Later, in the II century. n. e., for fighters of this type, knee-length pants come into fashion in combination with a wide belt and a small ornamented breastplate.

Rice. 18. Marble relief of the end of the 1st century. BC e. with the image of venators

To summarize, we can draw the following conclusion: the armor of the gladiators of each type had vulnerabilities, but everything was thought out in such a way as to exclude a quick victory and balance the chances of the warring parties. Therefore, during the competitions, there was no way to predict which of the gladiators could win by the equipment, which fueled the spectators' special interest in what was happening in the arena. Indeed, hitting the enemy in the chest with protected limbs is quite difficult, which implies effective active combat, great skill and dexterity, otherwise the sophisticated Roman public would simply get bored. Of course, fencing in modern sense this word did not exist at that time. Mostly stabbing blows were used, for which a shield was used to parry. Often, he himself was used as a means of attack, so that with an unexpected blow from his rib or umbon - a convex protrusion in the central part - to unbalance the enemy (cf.: Tas. Agric. 36). Only two types of gladiators, due to the lack of a shield, had to use the parry of the blade with the blade - dimacher and arbelas.

The greatest advantages in battle for all types of gladiators were given by a left-sided stance with a body turned at an angle of 45 ° to the enemy. It allowed both inflicting and parrying powerful blows, especially if the main means of defense was a large shield. When the legs were slightly bent at the knees, it almost completely covered the body from the lower edge of the visor to the upper edge of the leggings. In this stance, the right hand with the sword was at the level of the thigh. In order not to open up, they tried to strike at close range over the shield or attacked, retracting the shield and at the same time taking a step forward. The use of spears by goplomakhs suggested a preference for long-range combat, since with close contact it became useless. Close combat posed the most serious danger to the retiarius. In this situation, winning even a few moments could provide him with an opportunity to deliver a decisive blow with a trident. The Thracian, on the contrary, could strike beyond the line of the shield with his curved dagger only in close combat.

The main weapon of the gladiators, as their name implies, was the gladius - a sword used in the Roman army from the end of the 3rd century BC. BC e. The famous “Spanish” gladius had a blade 64–69 cm long and 4.0–5.5 cm wide. Its double-sided blade with a longitudinal stiffener and a clearly defined point made it possible not only to chop, but also to stab, which was important in the tightness of the battle. During the reign of Emperor Augustus, it was quickly supplanted by the Mainz-type gladius, which was used until the middle of the 1st century. n. e. The length of the blade in this case was about 50 cm with a width of up to 8.7 cm. The total length of the sword weighing up to 1.2–1.6 kg in some cases reached 75 cm. Later, lightweight gladius of the so-called Pompeian type, weighing about 1 kg, became widespread (Fig. 19). Accordingly, their blade had smaller dimensions: about 45 cm long and 5–6 cm wide, with a point, the edges of which were located at an angle of 45 °. During the late Roman Empire, from the end of the 2nd to the beginning of the 3rd century, the gladius was replaced by a long sword - a spata with a blade up to 85 cm long. From the surviving inscriptions, it is known that myrmillons-spatarii, provocateurs-spatarii, etc. existed during this period.

Along with swords, retiarii and a number of gladiators with light weapons widely used daggers, which, judging by the finds in Pompeii, had bone handles and wide straight diamond-shaped blades about 20–30 cm long. Such daggers practically differ little from the "pugio" adopted into service in the Roman army since the end of the 2nd century BC. BC e.

Daggers with a thin curved blade (sika) can only be judged by two samples with a uniform curve along the entire length. One of them, with a small round guard, has a length of about 60 cm, with 45 cm falling on the blade itself.

Rice. 19. Smoothing from Pompeii. 1st century n. e.

The other comes from the Roman camp at Oberaden and is a wooden model with a sharply defined hilt and a 30.5 cm long blade. In both cases, double-edged blades with a stiffener are intended primarily for inflicting injections. After the middle of the 1st c. n. e. the blade of such daggers began to be made wider and had a sharp fracture at an angle of 45 °, which allowed their owners to inflict stabbing or chopping blows on the enemy.

An equally common weapon of gladiators was a spear about 2.0–2.3 m long, which was used by goplomakhs, equites and venators. Bronze spearheads found in the school of gladiators in Pompeii demonstrate the presence of a sleeve and a leaf-shaped or lanceolate feather with a pronounced stiffening rib. Regarding the only three-lobed tip of a triangular shape, it is quite probable that it is part of the retiarius trident, the length of which, judging by the surviving images, was at least 1.6–1.8 m. As you know, the retiarius also used the network considered in antiquity how projectile, so sometimes it was called a yakulator (thrower). Its weight, as the reconstruction shows, ranged from 1.5 to 3.0 kg. It was round with wide cells of about 10–20 cm and lead weights at the ends.

If the offensive weapon of the gladiators differed little from the usual army, then speaking of defensive weapons, a number of significant features should be noted for it. To understand them, you will have to turn to the analysis of finds from Pompeii. This amazing collection includes fifteen helmets, five pairs of long and six short single greaves, three galley pauldrons and a small round shield. For the most part, they are generously decorated with various relief images, which led to the emergence of the following common point of view: these are ceremonial weapons, which were worn only to participate in the pomp - the solemn procession of the opening of the games. In this case, the following arguments were given: 1) these weapons are too expensive to be in danger of damage; 2) there are no traces of the impact of weapons on them; 3) they are too heavy to be used in combat; 4) The metal surface with embossed decorations is not strong enough to withstand strong blows. However, these arguments can be easily challenged. We must not forget that the gladiators were participants in magnificent performances and had to impress the public, including the luxury of their weapons. In addition, the predominant use of stabbing rather than chopping strikes is unlikely to involve a significant amount of damage. In helmets, the visor grille most often had to suffer, but it was not difficult to repair or replace it. Therefore, only two Pompeian helmets have combat marks in the form of notches or a bronze patch. As for the weight of the helmets, it really varies from 2.72 kg to 6.80 kg, which, even with an average value, is twice as heavy as the helmet of a Roman legionary of the 1st century. But they were used in completely different conditions! Gladiators put on a helmet immediately before the battle, and did not drag it on themselves during a long transition. A short duel in the arena cannot even be compared with a battle that could drag on for several hours. With the increased weight of the helmets, there is also no need to talk about the weakness of the metal due to the embossing of the relief decor. For them, sheet bronze was used, which is almost one and a half times thicker than that used in the manufacture of helmets in the Roman army. Thus, sets of so-called ceremonial weapons were in fact an attribute of a normal performance in the arena, apparently changing owners from time to time.

Gladiator helmets of the 1st century. BC BC, as a rule, they were a combination of Boeotian and Attic helmets, from which wide brim bent down, as well as a characteristic forehead plate and wide cheek pads, were borrowed. The next stage in the development of helmets is associated with the appearance around 20 BC. e. took. It hid the individual features of a person and allowed the audience to better focus on the art of combat. This "depersonalization" provided a kind of psychological help to the gladiators themselves when they had to fight with their friends in the barracks life. The visor itself consisted of two parts, suspended on hinges, and opened in different directions like gate leaves. Often there were special round holes for the eyes with a diameter of about 8 cm. Usually they were covered with removable plates with holes. In front, at the junction of the parts of the visor, there were latches for fixing them on a metal strip forming a vertical rib. By the end of the 1st century the visor almost entirely began to consist of a lattice with protrusions that were included in the corresponding slots in the helmet. The design of the helmets of the types described above is typical only for the equipment of the Myrmillons, Hoplomaches, Thracians and Equites. In secutors and arbelas, the diameter of the eye openings is only 3 cm, which was a precautionary measure against hitting the retiarius with a trident. However, in one of the varieties of the secutor helmet, the entire visor was covered with small round holes to facilitate breathing and expand the field of view.

If we use the typology of helmets developed by M. Junkelman, then the earliest examples of the 1st c. have horizontal fields either along the entire perimeter (Chieti G), or only on the sides and back, forming a curved visor in front (Pompeii G). Around the second quarter of the 2nd c. n. e. a type of helmet appeared (Berlin G), which remained popular for almost three centuries. It has low fields on the sides and back, combined with a sharply raised frame of the visor grille (Fig. 20).

A characteristic element of the form of gladiator helmets was the pommel. For secutors and arbelas, it was a curved semicircular comb; in the helmet of a myrmillon, the pommel rose vertically from behind, then bent almost at a right angle forward, having a groove for attaching a horsehair plume. The helmet of the Thracian, like the goplomakh, on a pommel evenly curved forward, could have a plume of feathers. The helmets of the Essedarii can only be speculated upon. M. Junkelman believes that at first they had a great resemblance to the army type Mannheim and Haguenau, but then they began to look like secutor helmets. The only differences were the absence of a comb and two feathers on the sides of the crown. Usually, all helmets had a bronze surface polished to a shine, which could be decorated with relief images using the deep chasing technique or silver plated. In this regard, the well-preserved Thracian helmet (Chieti type G) from the gladiator barracks in Pompeii attracts attention. Its crest is adorned with the head of a griffin, the forehead part with an image of a palm tree as a symbol of victory, and its visor with round shields and spears minted in low relief. The magnificently decorated helmets of the myrmillons (Pompeii type G) are characterized primarily by plots associated with mythological characters.

The protection of the hand of the gladiators - the left of the retiarius, and the right of all the rest - was manica, usually made from several layers of quilted fabric or leather belts. It was attached to the hand with numerous leather straps, protecting the hand and thumb only from the outside. Reconstruction of manica using horse hair as a filler showed that this product weighs no more than 1 kg, holds a chopping blow well and the hand is quite mobile in it. From the beginning of the II century. n. e. and up to the 4th c. scaly designs with metal plates were common. For them, a more complex fastening system was used: belts covering the chest, back and left shoulder. A specific protective device exclusively for the retiarius was the galley - an almost square bronze shield with rounded upper edges with a protrusion for the hand and two pairs of loops for tying on the inside. Usually its height did not exceed 35 cm, and its weight - 1.2 kg. The purpose of the shield, which protruded upwards by 12–13 cm, was to protect the neck and head from side impacts.

The shields that were part of the weapons of the mirmillons and secutors practically did not differ from the well-known scutum of the Roman legionnaires and changed in accordance with changes in its design. Until the beginning of the 1st c. n. e. the scutum had an oval shape, which was replaced by a rectangular, semi-cylindrical one, which provided better protection for the warrior. The dimensions of the shields varied from 100–130 cm in height to 60–80 cm in width. Taking into account the usual practice of that time, we can say that in the manufacture of this kind of protective weapons, to give it special strength, two or three layers of thin wooden plates with a thickness of about 2 mm each were glued perpendicular to each other. Then, on both sides, they were first covered with linen, then with one or more layers of thick leather. However, sometimes the reverse order of the structure of the outer coating is also observed. In any case, the lining of the inner side was necessary to prevent rubbing of the hand against the wooden backing of the shield. An idea about the design of the early scutum is given by the discovery of a shield from the 1st century BC. BC e. from the Fayum oasis in Egypt. The oval shield, 1.280 m high and 0.635 m wide, had a convex surface. Its base was made of nine thin birch planks, glued together by the sides. Narrow (from 2.5 to 5.0 cm) plates of the same type of wood are tightly pasted onto it on both sides. On the outer side, in the center of the shield, a convex overlay is nailed with iron nails - an elongated wooden umbon. Triangular in cross-section slats depart from it, forming a longitudinal ridge. On all sides, the shield was covered with a thin layer of sheep wool felt. The edges of the inner felt covering were wrapped outward and sewn to the tree, forming a 5–6 cm wide roller. Judging by P. Connolly's reconstruction, the weight of such a shield could reach 10 kg.

The only surviving example of a late scutum, dating from the 3rd century, was found in Dura Europos (Syria). Its edges are trimmed with rawhide sewn to wood, although more often they were upholstered with a metal strip about 5 cm wide, it was possible to take a chopping blow on it (cf.: Polyaen. 8. 7. 2) or use it to strike the enemy and knock him off his feet. The thickness of the edge of the shield was about 6 mm, but towards the middle it could probably thicken up to 1 cm. From the inside, its base was reinforced with glued wooden planks forming a rectangle. The handle is formed by a thickening of an additional bar passing along the horizontal axis through the center. WITH outside such a handle was covered with a metal umbon. In battle, a large shield was held by her with a horizontal grip on a vertically lowered arm, threaded through a special loop. outer surface the shield, as in this case, could be decorated with multi-colored images or ornaments. The scutum, reconstructed by P. Connolly on the basis of a find in Dura Europos, weighed about 5.5–7.5 kg. Accordingly, its use in an individual duel required good physical preparation.

Provocateurs used a shield of lesser weight and smaller dimensions - about 70-80 cm high. The strongly curved small shield of the Thracians (parmula) was rectangular (about 55x60 cm), as a rule, without the usual round umbon. Obviously, the handle in this case was located vertically. The reconstructed weight of the shield was 3 kg. The Pompeian specimen of the round bronze shield of a hoplomachus, 37 cm in diameter, weighed 1.6 kg and was richly decorated with silver and copper chasing in the form of two concentric laurel wreaths and the head of the Gorgon Medusa in the center (Fig. 21). The shield was held by the left hand, which could also contain a dagger, while the right hand held a spear. Several large sizes(about 60 cm in diameter) was an equite shield - parma equestris, made of thick pressed leather. By analogy with the Turkish shields of the new time, it should have easily repelled attacks directed from different directions. Round, oval or rectangular shields up to the middle of the 1st century BC. n. e. supplied the venators. There was no standardization in this regard.

Rice. 21. Bronze shield from Pompeii

For several types of gladiators, leggings (okrea) were included in the mandatory set of protective weapons, which only centurions wore in the Roman army. Leggings made of bronze were attached to the shins with leather straps passed through several pairs of rings and tied at the back. Apparently, their length depended mainly on the size of the shield, and the bent upper edge of the greaves of myrmillons and secutors protected the leg from blows from its lower edge. On the other hand, the lack of leggings among the arbelas and dimachers who did not have a shield, as well as among the Essedarii and equites who fought as horsemen, is surprising. At the same time, myrmillons, secutors and provocateurs had a greave only on the left leg, and if it was short, it was necessarily supplied with a high rounded neckline under upper part feet. In turn, high leggings had a bulge for the kneecap. The role of the lining was played by quilted windings (fascia) weighing, judging by the reconstructions, up to 3.5 kg. The presence of short inscriptions of several letters on about half of the leggings - NCA, NER, NER.AVG - indicates, most likely, that they were made in the workshops at the gladiatorial school of Nero, which put some of the weapons made on sale. The presence of the same MSR inscription on ten other objects at once makes one assume that the person behind this monogram is either a master gunsmith or a local lanist. The surface of gladiatorial leggings was often covered with rich relief decor, for example, one of them depicts the head of the god of wine and winemaking Dionysus, his attributes and the heads of his companions - satyrs and maenads.

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Gladiator (from Latin gladius - "sword", "gladius") - the name of the fighters in ancient Rome, who fought among themselves or with animals for the amusement of the public in special arenas.

The first gladiators, strictly speaking, were not such, but were only ordinary slaves and convicted criminals. Later, schools were created for the training of gladiators, and in the hope of fame and fortune, their ranks were replenished with people from all classes. Huge amphitheaters were built especially for gladiator fights.

Gladiators used various types of weapons. They often fought one on one. If one of the opponents was wounded, then according to the rules, his fate was in the hands of the audience. If they wanted to keep him alive, they waved handkerchiefs in the air or held their thumbs up. If they thumbs looked down, the victim was to die.

There were cases when citizens, in pursuit of fame and money, gave up their own freedom and became gladiators. Among them there were even female gladiators, when in 63 AD. er. Emperor Nero issued a decree allowing free women to participate in gladiatorial tournaments. After him, Pozzuoli allows Ethiopian women to fight. And the emperor Domitiano in 89 brings dwarf gladiators to the arena.

In order to become a gladiator, it was necessary to take an oath and declare oneself "legally dead". From that moment on, the fighters entered another world, where cruel laws of honor reigned. The first of these was silence. Gladiators communicated in the arena with gestures. The second law is the complete observance of the rules of honor. So, for example, a gladiator who fell to the ground and was conscious of his complete defeat was obliged to remove his protective helmet and put his throat under the opponent's sword or plunge his knife into his own throat.

Over time, such fights began to bother the Romans and they began to invent new spectacles. Gladiators had to fight lions, tigers and other wild animals.

Much effort was made to put an end to these terrible performances, but this was not done until 500 AD. Emperor Theo-Doric.

Types of gladiators

1. Andabat. They were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights in medieval jousting tournaments, but without the ability to see each other.
2. Bestiary. Armed with a dart or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but criminals (noxia), sentenced to fight with predatory animals, with a high probability of death of the condemned. Later, bestiaries became well-trained gladiators, specializing in combat with various exotic predators using darts. The fights were organized in such a way that the beasts had little chance of defeating the bestiary.
3. Bustuary. These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased at ritual games during the funeral rite.
4. Dimacher( from the Greek di - "two" and machaer - "sword") . Two swords were used, one in each hand. They fought without a helmet and shield, with two daggers. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, their arms and legs were bandaged with tight bandages, sometimes they wore leggings.
5. Equity( pl. equites, from lat. equus - "horse") . In the early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators were dressed in scaly armor, wore a medium-sized round cavalry shield (parma equestris), a helmet with a brim, without a crest, but with two decorative tassels. In Imperial times, they wore forearm armor (manica) on their right arm, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other bare-chested gladiators), and a belt. Equites started the fight on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hasta), they dismounted and continued to fight with a short sword (gladius). Equits usually only fought other Equits.
6. Gaul. They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.
7. Essedarius ("chariot fighter", from the Latin name for the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). Perhaps they were first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain. Essedaria are mentioned in many descriptions from the 1st century AD. e. Since there are no images of the Essedarii, nothing is known about their weapons and fighting style.
8. Hoplomachus (from the Greek "οπλομ?χος" - "armed fighter"). They were dressed in quilted, trouser-like clothing for legs, possibly made of canvas, loincloth, belt, greaves, forearm armor (maniku) on the right arm, and a brimmed helmet with a stylized griffin on the crest, which could be decorated with a tassel of feathers on top and single feathers on each side. They were armed with a gladius and a very small round shield made from a single sheet of thick bronze (examples from Popmpeii have been preserved). They were put up for fights against the Mirmillons or the Thracians. It is possible that the Goplomakhs descended from earlier Samnites after it became “politically incorrect” to use the name of a people who had become friendly to the Romans.
9. Lakveary ("fighter with a lasso"). Lakvearii could be a type of retiarii that tried to catch their rivals with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.
10. Murmillon( from the Greek mormylos - "sea fish") . They wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest (from the Latin "mormylos" - "sea fish"), as well as armor for the forearm (manica), a loincloth and belt, leggings on the right leg, thick windings covering the top of the foot, and very short armor with a notch for padding at the top of the foot. Murmillons were armed with a gladius (40-50 cm long) and a large rectangular shield, like legionnaires. They were put up for battle against the Thracians, Retiarii, sometimes also against the hoplomachi.
11. PEGNARY. They used a whip, a club and a shield, which was attached to the left hand with straps.
12. Provocateur ("applicant"). Their outfit could be different, depending on the nature of the games. They were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a maniku on the right arm, and a helmet with a visor, without brim and crest, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The provocateurs were armed with a gladius and a large rectangular shield. Exhibited for battles with the Samnites or other provocateurs.
13. Retiarius ("fighter with a net"). Appeared at the dawn of the Empire. They were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. In addition to a loincloth supported by a wide belt (balteus) and a large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius had no clothing, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower face. There were retiarii who played female roles in the arena (“retiarius tunicatus”), which differed from ordinary retiarii in that they were dressed in a tunic. The retiarii usually fought with the secutors, but sometimes with the myrmillons.
14. Rudiarium. Gladiators who deserved to be released (rewarded with a wooden sword called a rudis) but chose to remain gladiators. Not all rudiarii continued to fight in the arena, there was a special hierarchy among them: they could be trainers, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. Rudiarii fighters were very popular among the public, as they had vast experience and one could expect real show.
15. Sagittarius( from lat. sagitta - "arrow") . Mounted archers armed with a flexible bow capable of launching an arrow over a long distance.
16. Samnite. The Samnites, an ancient type of heavily armed fighters that disappeared during the early imperial period, pointed to the origin of gladiatorial combat by their name. The historical Samnites were an influential group of Italic tribes living in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom the Romans fought wars from 326 to 291 BC. e. The equipment of the Samnites was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.
17. Secutor( O t lat. sequi - "to pursue") . This type of fighters was specially intended for fights with retiarii. The secutors were a variation of the myrmillons and were equipped with similar armor and weapons, including a large rectangular shield and a gladius. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face, except for two holes for the eyes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their rival. The helmet was practically round and smooth, so that the net of the retiarius could not catch on it.
18. Skissor ("one who cuts"). Nothing is known about this type of gladiator other than the name.
19. Tertiary (also called "Suppositicius" - "replacing"). Some competitions involved three gladiators. First, the first two fought each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called the tertiary. Tertiarii also came to replace if the gladiator declared for the fight, for one reason or another, could not enter the arena.
20. Thracian( lat. thraex - a representative of the people of Thrace) . The Thracians were equipped with the same armor as the goplomakhs. They had a large helmet covering the entire head and decorated with a stylized griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest (the griffin was the symbol of the goddess of retribution Nemesis), a small round or flattened shield (parmula), and two large greaves. Their weapon was a Thracian curved sword (sicca, about 34 cm long). They usually fought the Myrmillons or the Hoplomaches.
21. Velit( pl. velites, from lat. velum - "canvas", because dressed in a linen tunic) . Foot gladiators armed with a dart with a throwing cord tied to it. Named after units of the early Republican army.
22. Venator. They specialized in demonstrative hunting for animals, not fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. Venators also performed tricks with animals: they put their hand in the mouth of a lion; rode on a camel, keeping a lion on a leash nearby; made an elephant walk on a tightrope). Strictly speaking, the venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of the gladiator fights.
23. Pregenary. They performed at the beginning of the competition to "warm up" the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, pipes and water organs (hydraulis).

Velit ( Veles, a bunch of - Velites) - a gladiator armed with darts (hastae velitares). Velites gladiators followed the weapons and tactics of the ancient Roman light infantry velites, by analogy with which they were named.

Goplomakh

Hoplomachus (hoplomachus from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter") is a fairly common type of gladiator. He imitated Greek hoplites with his equipment. The word hoplomachus itself comes from the Greek ὁπλομάχος ("armed fighter" or "warrior with hoplon"). The goplomakh's armor consisted of a helmet, a small round shield-parma or a large legionnaire's shield made of one sheet of thick bronze (sample from Pompeii survived), quilted windings ( fasciae) on both legs or high leggings (ocreae), armor for the forearm-manica (manica) on the right hand. The goplomakh's helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grate, and upper reaches with a plume. Feathers were inserted on the sides of the helmet. The goplomakh was armed with a spear-gasta (hasta) and a dagger-pugio ( pugio).

The spear allowed the hoplomakh to fight at a long distance. In the event of the loss of a spear, the goplomakh went into close combat, fought with a dagger. The traditional opponents of the hoplomachus were the Mirmilon or, more rarely, the Thracian.

Gaul

Gall ( Gallus) - a type of gladiators of the period of the Republic. They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield. The armor and weapons of the Gaulish gladiators were supposed to resemble Gallic warriors. It is certain that in the 1st century BC. e. Gallic gladiators "transformed" into Mirmilons.

dimacher

Dimaher ( dimachaerus) is a fairly rare type of gladiator. The word dimachaerus literally means - “with two sabers”, “double saber” (from the Greek Διμάχαιρος). The dimacher's armor consisted of a helmet, short leggings and chain mail (Lorika hamata). The helmet had a closed visor with a grille and wide brim. He was armed with two curved mahair swords ( machaera), or sikam daggers.

It is not known exactly what type of gladiators were the opponents of the dimacher in the arena. But the Romans considered dimacher one of the most dangerous fighters.

Equities

Equity (eques, set - equites) - a type of gladiator who fought on a horse. Literally, "rider". Also called the ancient Roman cavalrymen. Unlike most gladiators, who fought naked to the waist, the Equites wore sleeveless tunics girded with a belt. Equita armor consisted of a helmet, a cavalry round shield-parma (parma equestris) with a diameter of 60 cm and armor for the forearm (manica) on the right hand. The helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grille and had no headwaters. Feathers were inserted on the sides. Sometimes the Equites wore scaly armor (Lorika squamata). Equit was armed with a spear-gasta ( hasta) and gladius. Equites opened gladiator fights: they fought in the morning, immediately after the solemn pomp, anticipating the persecution of animals, the execution of criminals and the fights on foot gladiators. Equita battle tactics inherited the usual tactics of the Roman cavalry: throwing a spear, they dismounted and fought with a sword - horseback combat at a time when stirrups were not yet known was very inconvenient. In the arena, equites fought exclusively among themselves.

Mirmilon

Mirmilon, murmilon ( myrmillo, murmillo, plural - myrmillones, murmillones) is one of the most common types of gladiators. According to one version, these gladiators got their name because on the helmet they wore the image of the fish “mormir” (Greek Μόρμυλος, μορμύρος). It should be borne in mind that now African freshwater fish are called “mormirs”, however, in ancient times, the word μόρμυλος, μορμύρος could also be called a certain type of fish common in the Mediterranean Sea. The Myrmilons themselves are thought to have descended from Gaulish gladiators. Mirmilon's armor consisted of a helmet, a bracer on his right hand, a short (below the knee) greaves on his left leg, and a shield - scutum. He did not have a shell, he fought naked to the waist, which made it possible to demonstrate to the public a powerful torso and muscles. Myrmilon's helmet had a wide brim, a visor with a lattice and a characteristic crest in the form of a fish, which could be silver plated. Myrmilon fought with an ordinary sword of the Roman infantry - a gladius. When from the II-III centuries AD. e. the mirmilons received a long sword instead of a gladius - spatu, they became known as "mirmilons-spataria" ( myrmillones-spatharii).

The traditional opponent of Mirmilon was a Thracian. The Mirmilon-Thracian pair was one of the most common during gladiator fights. Less commonly, the Myrmilons fought with hoplomachus or retiarii, but never among themselves.

Thracian

Thracian (Thraex, set - Thraeces) - one of the most common types of gladiators. Reliably, this type of gladiators appeared as a result of the appearance in the 1st century BC. e. a large number of Thracian prisoners of war. The equipment of this type repeated the national Thracian: it was armed with a curved dagger-siko, the armor consisted of a helmet, quilted windings on both legs, high greaves, a small rectangular strongly arched shield and a bracer on the right hand. The Thracian's helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grate and a characteristic headstock in the form of a griffin - one of the symbols of the goddess of revenge Nemesis.

Thracian gladiators were considered a pronounced attacking type of fighters. The curved dagger gave them certain advantages in close combat. The main rivals of the Thracians in the arena were the Myrmilons. Sometimes the Thracians also fought the Hoplomakhs.

Secutor

Esedarius

Esedarius(essedarius) - a gladiator who fought on chariots. Its name comes from the word essedum, which the Romans called the chariots of the Celts. On one chariot there were at the same time one or two esedarii, in the second case one controlled the horses, the second was directly a fighter. The word essedarius was used not only in relation to gladiators, but also to Celtic chariot warriors (in Gaius Julius Caesar in "Notes on the Gallic War"). Perhaps they appeared after Caesar's campaign in Britain. They are known only from descriptions (starting from the 1st century AD), their images have not been preserved, and nothing is known about their fighting style. It can be assumed that the esedarius rode a chariot along the edges of the arena and fired at foot opponents with a bow and threw darts at them. The Esedarii were usually armed with spears, bows and swords, sometimes with a small shield. Sharp blades could be attached to the wheels.

Cast

Cast or cestus (cestus) - fist fighter, boxer in the circus arena. The name comes from the ancient Roman boxing glove - Cast (cestus or caestus).

Krupelarii

Krupelarii, crupelarius (crupellarius) - a type of gladiator, whose armor consisted of a lamellar shell of Lorik segmentat, on a bracer-manik on both hands and high leggings. The helmet was closed, with slits for the eyes and mouth, it resembled a medieval tophelm. In solid armor, similar to the armor of a medieval knight, the gladiator croupelarium was almost invulnerable to an opponent. The armament consisted of a scutum and a gladius. Heavy armor placed increased demands on candidates for crupelaria: staying in them required an extraordinary physical strength and endurance.

Tacitus describes the crupelaris as gladiators, recruited from the slaves of the Gauls, and equipped according to the traditions of the warriors of Lugdun Gaul. They took part in the uprising of the Trevers led by Florus and Sacrovir in 21:

Some of the slaves underwent gladiator training. Wrapped in iron after the custom of their people, these krupelarii, as they were called, were too clumsy for offensive action, however, were adamant in defense ... The infantry carried out a frontal attack. The Gallic ranks moved back. Armored warriors delayed the advance: they were invulnerable to swords and darts. However, the Romans, using axes and picks, destroyed the armor along with the owners, just like breaking a wall. Other gladiators were knocked to the ground with spears and tridents, and taking advantage of their helplessness, they put them to death.

Perhaps the historian was referring to the heavily armed Gaul gladiators, who were later transferred to the Myrmilons.

lakveary

lakveary, lakverary, lakveator(laquearius, laquerarius, laqueator) - a kind of retiarius, literally - "armed lasso", "lasso". The equipment consisted of a lasso (laqueus), a short spear and a dagger. Lakvearia appeared rather late. Their tactics repeated the tactics of the retiarius: they tried to catch the enemy with a lasso, and then hit with a dagger. The protective armor was identical - the sleeve - Manik and the galley pauldron.

Most gladiators had warriors and hunters as their prototype. Since the lasso was an unusual weapon for the Romans, it can be assumed that the equipment of this type of gladiator comes from the equipment of some barbarian tribe, possibly the Sagartian warriors from Ancient Persia.

In addition, it is suggested that the lacqueary could be a kind of pegniarium, that is, a circus jester, amused the audience with comic fights during breaks.

Pegniarius

Pegniarius(paegniarius) - a gladiator, designed to entertain the audience in between fights, when the fighters rested. The name comes from the Greek word παίγνιον ("toy", "toy", "comic performance"). Pegnarii were armed only with wooden rudisam swords (rudis) and whips. Protective equipment consisted of a wooden shield and wooden shields on the arms and legs instead of handrails and leggings, and instead of a helmet, they wrapped a cloth around their heads. Pegnarii made comic fights. Unlike real gladiators, they could live a long life: the famous epitaph to the pegniar Secundus, which reports that he lived 99 years, 8 months and 18 days.

Sagitarius

Sagitarius(sagittarius) - gladiator archer. He wore a conical helmet and a scaly shell of Lorica squamat, was armed with a bow (arcus) and arrows (sagittae).

Samnite

Samnite(Samnis, many - Samnites) - a type of gladiators of the Republic period. At one time it was the most popular of all. Represented the warriors of the Italian region of Samnia, conquered by the Romans in the III century BC. e. The equipment of this type of gladiator inherited the national Samnite. The armor of the Samnite consisted of a helmet with a visor, dressed with a crest or feathers (galea), a shield (oval or rectangular), leather greaves on the left leg (ocrea), a manica bracer and the tridisc carapace inherent in the Samnites. The Samnite was armed with a spear and a sword - a gladius.

Skisor

Scissor, scissor(scissor, set - scissores) or arbelas (arbelas, set - arbelai) - a gladiator, whose name comes from the word scindo ("I cut", "shred"). Another name - "arbelas" (see) is known only through one source (that is, hapax), so it is not possible to accurately identify them. Arbelas is remembered by the ancient Greek writer Artemidor Daldian in his treatise Oneirocritica (Snotlumach) as one of the gladiators that a person can dream of to show the prospects of marriage (arbelas in a dream, like a dimacher, portend a bad wife). Perhaps the second name of this type of gladiator comes from the ancient Greek ἄρβηλος, which meant a crescent-shaped shoemaker's knife, similar to the Eskimo ulu - this was associated with the characteristic, rather exotic weapon of this type of gladiators, which the skisor-arbelas held in his left hand instead of a shield. It consisted of a hollow top, worn on the hand, with a crescent-shaped blade (reliably sharpened on all sides). With this weapon, he inflicted minor, but very bleeding wounds on the enemy. In addition to this weapon, this gladiator was armed with a short gladius sword, which he held in his right hand. Skisor armor consisted of a closed helmet, chain mail (Lorika gamata) or lamellar armor of Lorika segmentata, a bracer on the right hand (manica) and short leggings (ocreae). The skisor's helmet was without rats and bars, with a crest in the form of a fish's fin. The skisor, like the dimacher, was not armed with a shield.

Scissor was one of the most heavily armed types of gladiators. In the arena, the skisors fought either among themselves or against the retiarius. That is why, apparently, the helmet of the skisora ​​was similar to the helmet of the secutor - a streamlined shape with a solid folding visor and small holes for the eyes.

Arbelas

Arbelas was one of the most heavily armed types of gladiators. The weight of weapons reached 22-26 kg. The name arbelas comes from the Greek name for a semi-circular knife reminiscent of the weapon of this type of gladiator. Arbelas wears a short-sleeve chain mail, a closed helmet, a short sword, a manic leather bracer on his right hand, a tubular bracer with his weapon (arbelos) on his left hand, and short greaves on both legs.

Tertiary

Tertiary, tertiary(tertiarius) - a gladiator who fought the winner of a duel. The name comes from the word tertius - "third". Tertiarii could be "understudies" for the declared, but absent participants in the battle. They were also called "suppositories", "suppositions" (suppositicii) - "substitutes"

Other terms

• Venator(venator, literally - "hunter") - an artist of the ancient Roman circus, like a bestiary, specialized in baiting animals. However, the venator was not actually a gladiator, because he did not fight with animals, but only performed risky tricks with them, similar to a modern tamer.
• Gregory(gregarius) - beginner gladiator (from one year of training). Literally - "herd". The name comes from the fact that before the fights of experienced gladiators, group battles of beginners were often held.
• editor(editor) - a person who arranges gladiator fights at his own expense. An analogue of a modern sponsor or producer. Also called "munerarius" (munerarius).
• Lanista(lanista) - the owner of the gladiatorial school. He bought slaves for his school, taught them, and rented them out to an editor who played games. The profession of lanista was considered very profitable, but at the public graduation he was listed on a par with leno (owner of a brothel, “pimp”) as a “dealer in human meat”.
• Lorary(lorarius) - a circus attendant who urged on inexperienced gladiators or animals in the arena. The word lorarius itself comes from lorum ("leather belt", "whip"). In addition, the cleaning of the arena belonged to the duties of the loraries: they carried the dead and wounded gladiators, eliminated traces of blood, covering them with sand.
• Rudiarium(rudiarius) - gladiator, released. to freedom. The release could be a reward for unusual valor shown in the arena (for example, according to some sources, Spartacus was a rudiarium). The name comes from "rudis" (rudis) - a wooden sword, which was handed over to fired gladiators. Often rudiarii remained gladiators, in which case they were popular with the public. Those rudiaries who left fights could become trainers or judges in the arena.
• Tyro(tiro) is a gladiator who enters the arena for the first time.
• Triton(triton) - a student of the school of gladiators (up to 1-2 years of study).
• Veteran(veteranus) - a gladiator who fought several fights in the arena.