Loved by the public and sometimes despised by the elite, Roman gladiators were heroes of antiquity. For nearly seven centuries, they have drawn crowds of people to arenas and amphitheatres, showing their skill, strength and dexterity. The bloody battles of gladiators were as much a sport, theatrical performance and cold-blooded murder.

Here are some facts about the mysterious warriors who became the pillars of the most massive, brutal and popular entertainment in the history of Ancient Rome.

Not all gladiators were slaves

Most of the first warriors were brought to gladiatorial schools in chains, but by the first century AD. NS. the ratio of slaves to free people has changed a lot. The shouts and recognition of the crowd, trepidation and excitement attracted many free people to the gladiator schools, who hoped to receive fame and money. These free birds were most often desperate people who had nothing to lose, or former soldiers who had the necessary training and knowledge to fight in the arena. Sometimes some patricians and even senators who wanted to show their military training temporarily joined the ranks of gladiators.

Gladiator fights were originally part of the funeral ceremony

Most modern historians insist that gladiatorial performances in the arena are rooted in the bloody tradition of fighting between slaves or criminals at the funerals of prominent aristocrats. This kind of bloody obituary follows from the belief of the ancient Romans that human blood purifies the soul of the deceased. Thus, these cruel rites replaced human sacrifice. On the occasion of the death of his father and daughter, Julius Caesar organized battles between hundreds of gladiators. The performances were popular in the first century BC. NS. Ancient Rome began to arrange gladiatorial battles whenever the government needed to calm, distract or enlist the support of the crowd.

They didn't always fight to the death

Despite the popular portrayal of gladiatorial fights in literature and cinema as spontaneous and uncontrolled bloodsheds, most of them were carried out according to strict rules. Most often, fights were one-on-one between gladiators of similar physique and with equal combat experience. The judges watched the battle and stopped it if one of the opponents was seriously injured. Sometimes battles ended in a draw if they were too long. If the gladiators were able to put on an interesting performance and delight the crowd, both opponents were allowed to leave the arena with honor.

The famous "thumbs down" gesture did not mean death

When the gladiator was seriously wounded or preferred to admit defeat, throwing his weapon aside, the audience was left to decide his fate. Various works of art often describe the crowd with their index fingers thrown up, if the audience wanted to save the loser. But this opinion is probably not entirely true. Historians believe that the gesture of mercy was different - a thumb hidden in a fist. The fact is that the finger symbolized a sword, and the crowd showed them exactly how it was necessary to kill the loser: a thumb up could mean a cut throat, a finger to the side - a blow with a sword between the shoulder blades, and a finger down - a deep blow with a sword in the neck, towards heart. The gestures were often accompanied by loud shouts demanding let go or kill.

Gladiators were divided into types and classes, according to the types of battles and experience

For the opening of the Colosseum in 80 AD e., gladiator fights became a highly organized, bloody sport with its own directions and types of weapons. The division of fighters into classes was based on their level of training, experience in the arena and weight category. The division into types depended on the choice of weapons and the type of battles, the most popular types were Murmillons, Goplomakhs and Thracians, whose weapons were a sword and a shield. There were also equites - horsemen, Essedarii - chariot fighters, dimachers - armed with two swords or daggers, and many others.

They very rarely fought wild beasts.

Among the military types were bestiaries, who were originally criminals sentenced to duel with wild animals with a slim chance of survival. Later, bestiaries began to specially train for duels with animals, they were armed with darts and daggers. The rest of the gladiators participated in battles with animals very rarely, even though the battles were organized in such a way that the beast did not have a chance to survive. Often, performances featuring wild animals opened up battles and were simultaneously used to publicly execute criminals.

Women were gladiators too

They were mostly slaves, too headstrong for housework, but occasionally they were joined by the free women of Rome. Historians cannot say for sure when women first tried on gladiatorial armor, but it is known for sure that by the first century AD. NS. they were constant participants in the fighting. They were often the subject of ridicule by the patriarchal Roman elite, but enjoyed comparative popularity among the crowd. Despite this, the emperor Septimius Severus forbade women to participate in any games at the beginning of the 3rd century.

The gladiators had their own unions

Despite the fact that the gladiators were forced to fight with each other, sometimes even to the death, they viewed themselves as a brotherhood and sometimes gathered in a college. The gladiatorial unions had their own elected leaders, patron deities and gatherings. When one of them died in battle, the collegia paid compensation to his family and arranged a decent funeral for the fallen.

Emperors sometimes participated in gladiatorial battles

Among the regulars in the arena were Caligula, Commodus, Adrian and Titus. Most often, they took part in assigned battles or had a clear advantage over opponents. Emperor Commodus once defeated several frightened and poorly armed spectators.

Gladiators often became famous and enjoyed success with women.

Roman historians often called gladiators uneducated rude, the elite looked down on them, but successful fighters enjoyed resounding success among the lower classes. Their portraits adorned taverns and houses, children played with clay figurines of their favorite gladiators, and girls wore hairpins covered in gladiator blood.

Tells ( veles, lots of - velites) is a gladiator armed with darts (hastae velitares). The gladiators-velites followed the weapons and tactics of the ancient Roman light infantry-velites, by analogy with which they were named.

Goplomakh

Goplomakh (hoplomachus from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter") is a fairly common type of gladiator. With his equipment he imitated the Greek hoplites. The word hoplomachus itself comes from the Greek ὁπλομάχος ("armed fighter" or "warrior with a hoplon"). The armor of the goplomach consisted of a helmet, a small round parma shield or a large legionnaire shield made of one sheet of thick bronze (samples from Pompeii have survived), quilted windings ( fasciae) on both legs or high leggings (ocreae), armor for the forearm-manica (manica) on the right hand. The helmet of the goplomakh had wide brim, a visor with a lattice, the upper reaches with a plume. Feathers were inserted on the sides of the helmet. Armed with a goplomakh, he was a gasta spear (hasta) and a pugio dagger ( pugio).

The spear allowed the goplomakh to fight at a long distance. In case of loss of a spear, the goplomakh went into close combat, fought with a dagger. The traditional opponents of the Goplomach were the Myrmilon or, less commonly, the Thracian.

Gaul

Gall ( Gallus) - a type of gladiators of the Republic period. They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield. The armor and weapons of the Gaul gladiators were supposed to resemble the Gaulish warriors. It is certain that in the 1st century BC. NS. Gaul gladiators "transformed" into myrmilons.

Diemaher

Diemaher ( dimachaerus) is a rather rare type of gladiator. The word dimachaerus literally means “with two sabers”, “double saber” (from the Greek Διμάχαιρος). Dimakher's armor consisted of a helmet, short leggings and chain mail (Lorika hamata). The helmet had a closed visor with a grill and wide brim. He was armed with two curved mahair swords ( machaera), or sikam daggers.

It is not known exactly what type of gladiators opposed the dimacher in the arena. But the Romans considered dimacher one of the most dangerous fighters.

Equits

Eques (many - equites) - a type of gladiator who fought on horseback. Literally - "rider". The same was the name of the ancient Roman cavalry. Unlike most naked gladiators, equits wore sleeveless tunics belted with a belt. Equita's armor consisted of a helmet, a cavalry round parma shield (parma equestris) with a diameter of 60 cm and an armor for the forearm (manica) on the right hand. The helmet had wide brims, a visor with a lattice and had no upper reaches. Feathers were inserted on the sides. Sometimes equits wore scaly armor (Lorica squamata). Equit was armed with a ghast spear ( hasta) and gladius. Equits opened gladiatorial battles: they fought in the morning, immediately after the solemn pomp, anticipating the hounding of animals, the execution of criminals and the fights of foot gladiators. Equita's battle tactics inherited the usual tactics of the Roman cavalry: throwing a spear, they dismounted and fought with a sword - horse fighting at a time when stirrups were not yet known was very inconvenient. In the arena, equities fought exclusively among themselves.

Myrmilon

Myrmilon, murmilon ( myrmillo, murmillo, plural - myrmillones, murmillones) is one of the most common types of gladiators. According to one version, these gladiators got their name because on the helmet they wore the image of the fish "mormir" (Greek Μόρμυλος, μορμύρος). It should be borne in mind that now African freshwater fish are called "Mormirs", but in ancient times the word μόρμυλος, μορμύρος could also call a certain type of fish common in the Mediterranean Sea. The myrmilons themselves are presumably descended from Gaul gladiators. Myrmilon's armor consisted of a helmet, a bracer on the right hand, short (below the knee) greaves on the left leg, and a shield - scutum. He did not have a shell, he fought naked to the waist, which made it possible to demonstrate to the public a powerful torso and muscles. The myrmilon helmet had wide brims, a visor with a lattice, and a characteristic fish-shaped crest that could be silver-plated. Myrmilon fought with the usual sword of the Roman infantry - the gladius. When from the II-III centuries A.D. NS. myrmilons received instead of gladius a long sword - spatu, they began to be called "myrmilons-spatarii" ( myrmillones-spatharii).

The Thracian was the traditional opponent of myrmilon. The pair "Myrmilon-Thracians" was one of the most common during gladiatorial fights. Less commonly, myrmilons fought with the Goplomachs or Retiarii, but never among themselves.

Thracian

The Thracian (Thraex, many - Thraeces) is one of the most common types of gladiators. Reliably, this type of gladiators appeared as a result of the appearance in the 1st century BC. NS. a large number of Thracian prisoners of war. Equipment of this type repeated the national Thracian: armed with a curved dagger-shiko, the armor consisted of a helmet, quilted windings on both legs, high leggings, a small rectangular, strongly curved shield and a bracer on the right hand. The Thracian's helmet had wide brims, a visor with a lattice and a characteristic upper reaches in the form of a griffin - one of the symbols of the goddess of revenge, Nemesis.

Thracian gladiators were considered a pronounced attacking type of fighters. The curved dagger gave them certain advantages precisely in close combat. The main rivals of the Thracians in the arena were the myrmilons. Sometimes the Thracians also fought with the Goplomakhs.

Sector

Esedarius

Esedarius(essedarius) - gladiator who fought in chariots. Its name comes from the word essedum, which the Romans used to call the chariots of the Celts. On one chariot there were simultaneously one or two Yesdarii, in the second case, one drove the horses, the second was directly a fighter. The word essedarius was used not only in relation to gladiators, but also to Celtic chariot warriors (in Gaius Julius Caesar in "Notes on the Gallic War"). Perhaps they appeared after Caesar's campaign in Britain. They are known only from descriptions (starting from the 1st century A.D.), Their images have not survived, and nothing is known about their manner of fighting. It can be assumed that the Cesedarius rode in a chariot along the edges of the arena and fired on foot opponents with a bow and threw javelins at them. The Esedarii were usually armed with javelin spears, bow and sword, and sometimes had a small shield. Sharp blades could be attached to the wheels.

Cast

Cast or cesta (cestus) - fist fighter, boxer in the circus arena. The name comes from the ancient Roman boxing glove - Cest (cestus or caestus).

Kruplarium

Kruplarium, croupier (crupellarius) - a type of gladiator, whose armor consisted of the lamellar shell of the Loric segmental, on a manic bracer on both hands and high leggings. The helmet was closed, with slits for the eyes and mouth, it looked like a medieval tophelm. In solid armor, similar to the carapace of a medieval knight, the gladiator-croupier was almost invulnerable to the opponent. Armament consisted of scutum and gladius. Heavy armor put increased demands on candidates for the croupier: being in them required extraordinary physical strength and endurance.

Tacitus describes the croupiers as gladiators recruited from the slaves of the Gauls and the traditionally equipped warriors of Lugdun Gaul. They took part in the Trever revolt led by Flore and Sacrovir in 21:

Some of the slaves underwent gladiatorial training. Wrapped in iron according to the custom of their people, these croupiers, as they were called, were too clumsy for offensive action, however, they were adamant in the defense ... The infantry carried out a frontal attack. The Gallic ranks backed away. The armored warriors delayed the advance: they were invulnerable to swords and javelins. However, the Romans, using axes and picks, destroyed the armor along with the owners, just like breaking a wall. Other gladiators were knocked to the ground with spears with tridents, and using their helplessness, they were put to death.

Perhaps the historian was referring to the heavily armed Gaul gladiators who were later transferred to myrmilons.

Lakvearium

Lakveariy, lakverary, laqueator(laquearius, laquerarius, laqueator) - a kind of retiarius, literally - "armed lasso", "lasso". The equipment consisted of a lasso (laqueus), a short spear and a dagger. Lakuaries appeared rather late. Their tactics repeated the tactics of the retiarius: they tried to catch the enemy with a lasso, and then strike with a dagger. The protective armor was identical - the sleeve - Manika and the galley shoulder.

Most gladiators had warriors and hunters as their prototype. Since the lasso was an unusual weapon for the Romans, it can be assumed that the equipment of this type of gladiators comes from the equipment of some barbarian tribe, possibly the Sagartians from Ancient Persia.

In addition, it is believed that the lakeware could be a kind of pegniarium, that is, a circus jester, amused the audience with comic battles during the breaks.

Pegniarium

Pegniarium(paegniarius) - a gladiator, designed to entertain the audience in between battles, when the fighters were resting. The name comes from the Greek word παίγνιον ("toy", "toy", "comic performance"). The pegniarians were armed only with wooden rudis swords and whips. Protective equipment consisted of a wooden shield and wooden shields on the arms and legs instead of handrails and leggings, and instead of a helmet, they wrapped cloth around their heads. Pegniarians made comic duels. Unlike real gladiators, they could live a long life: the famous epitaph to the Pegniarium Secundus, which says that he lived 99 years, 8 months and 18 days.

Sagitarii

Sagitarii(sagittarius) - gladiator archer. He wore a conical helmet and scaly shell of Loric the squamate, and was armed with a bow (arcus) and arrows (sagittae).

Samnite

Samnite(Samnis, many - Samnites) - a type of gladiators of the Republic period. At one time it was the most popular of all. He represented the warriors of the Italic region of Samnia, conquered by the Romans in the 3rd century BC. NS. The equipment of this type of gladiator inherited the national Samnite. The armor of the Samnites consisted of a helmet with a visor, dressed with a crest or feathers (galea), a shield (oval or rectangular), a leather leggings on the left leg (ocrea), a manica brace, and the Samnite tridisc carapace. The Samnite was armed with a spear and a sword - a gladius.

Skisor

Scisor, scisor(scissor, many - scissores) or arbelas (arbelas, many - arbelai) - gladiator, whose name comes from the word scindo ("cut", "shred"). Another name - "arbelas" (see) is known only through one source (that is, hapax), so it is not possible to accurately identify them. Arbelas is remembered by the ancient Greek writer Artemidor Daldiansky in his treatise "Oneurocriticism" ("Snotlumach") as one of the gladiators who can dream of a person to show the prospects of marriage (arbelas in a dream, like dimakher, portends a bad wife). Perhaps the second name of this type of gladiator comes from the ancient Greek ἄρβηλος, which meant a crescent-shaped shoemaker's knife, similar to the Eskimo ulu - this was associated with the characteristic, rather exotic weapon of this type of gladiators, which the skisor-arbelas held in his left hand instead of a shield. It consisted of a hollow upper arm, worn on the arm, with a crescent-shaped blade (authentically sharpened from all sides). With this weapon, he inflicted minor, but very bleeding wounds on the enemy. In addition to these weapons, this gladiator was armed with a short gladius sword which he held in his right hand. The skisor's armor consisted of a closed helmet, chain mail (Lorica gamata) or plate armor of Lorica segmental, a bracer on the right hand (manica), and short leggings (ocreae). The skisor's helmet was without rats and grate, with a comb in the form of a fish fin. The skisor, like the dimacher, was not armed with a shield.

Skisor was one of the most heavily armed types of gladiators. In the arena, the skisors fought either among themselves or against the retiarius. That is why, apparently, the helmet of the scissor was similar to the helmet of the Sector - a streamlined shape with a solid folding visor and small holes for the eyes.

Arbelas

Arbelas was one of the most heavily armed types of gladiators. Weapon weight reached 22-26 kg. The name arbelas comes from the Greek name for a semicircular knife, reminiscent of the weapon of this type of gladiator. Arbelas has a short-sleeved chain mail, a closed helmet, a short sword, a manik's leather bracer on his right hand, a tubular bracer with his weapon (arbelos) on his left hand, short leggings on both legs.

Tertiary

Tertiary, tertiary(tertiarius) - gladiator who fought with the winner of the duel. The name comes from the word tertius - "third". Tertsiariev could be "understudies" for the declared, but absent participants in the battle. They were also called "suppositories", "supposites" (suppositicii) - "substitutes"

Other terms

• Venator(venator, literally - "hunter") - an artist of the ancient Roman circus, similar to the bestiary, specialized in baiting animals. However, the Venator was not actually a gladiator, because he did not fight with animals, but only performed risky tricks with them, similar to the modern tamer.
• Gregari(gregarius) - beginner gladiator (from one year of study). Literally - "herd". The name comes from the fact that before the fights of experienced gladiators, group battles of beginners were often carried out.
• Editor(editor) - a person who arranged gladiatorial battles at his own expense. An analogue of a modern sponsor or producer. Also called munerarius.
• Lanista(lanista) - owner of a gladiatorial school. He bought slaves for his school, taught them, and rented them out to an editor who played games. The Lanista profession was considered very profitable, but in the public graduation he was listed on a par with leno (the owner of a brothel, "pimp") as a "human meat dealer."
• Lorarius(lorarius) - a circus attendant who urged inexperienced gladiators or animals into the arena. The word lorarius itself comes from lorum ("leather belt", "whip"). In addition, the duties of the lorarii belonged to cleaning the arena: they carried the dead and wounded gladiators, eliminated traces of blood, covering them with sand.
• Rudiary(rudiarius) - gladiator, released. to freedom. Liberation could be a reward for unusual valor displayed in the arena (so, according to some reports, Spartacus was a rudiar). The name comes from the rudis, a wooden sword that was handed to dismissed gladiators. Often the rudiaries remained gladiators, in which case they were popular with the public. Those rudiaries who left the fights could become coaches or judges in the arena.
• Tiro(tiro) is a gladiator who enters the arena for the first time.
• Triton(triton) - a student of the school of gladiators (up to 1-2 years of study).
• Veteran(veteranus) is a gladiator who has fought several arena battles.

Violent sports were part of the Etruscan funeral rite as human sacrifices.

The Romans adopted the Etruscan funeral rite and over time changed it, they stopped killing the participants in the deadly fight immediately, and forced them to fight with swords in their hands near the grave of the deceased, the weak died in the duel, and the strong fighter remained alive, causing the delight of those present. The Romans first saw this cruel sight in 264 BC. NS. in a bull market where three pairs of gladiators fought at the commemoration for Brutus Pere, arranged by his sons. The sight seemed so unusual and remarkable for the Romans that this event was recorded in the annals of Rome.

The connection between gladiatorial games and funerals has never been forgotten, they were called "funeral games," and the official name was mumus (duty), the duty of the living to the deceased.

In 105 BC. NS. gladiatorial games were introduced as a public spectacle in Rome ... From now on, the state entrusted its magistrates with the care of organizing gladiatorial games, and they became a favorite sight, both in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. Caesar in 65 BC NS ... organized gladiatorial games in which 320 pairs of gladiators took part. His enemies were frightened: not only these armed fellows were terrible, it was scary that luxurious games became a sure way to gain the favor of the people and secure votes for themselves in the elections. In 63 BC. NS ... by the proposal Cicero passed a law , which prohibited a candidate for magistracy for two years before the election from "giving gladiators." No one, however, could forbid a private person to "give" them under the pretext of a commemoration for his relative, especially if the latter bequeathed to his heir to arrange games.

Depending on weapons and specifics their participation in fights was distinguished by the following types of gladiators:

Andabat (from the Greek word "άναβαται" - "raised, located on a dais.") Andabat fighters were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights in medieval knightly tournaments.

Bestiary were armed dart or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but criminals (noxias), sentenced to battle with predatory animals, with a high probability of the death of the condemned. Later, the bestiaries became highly trained gladiators, specializing in fighting various exotic predators with darts. The battles were organized in such a way that the beasts had little chance of defeating the bestiary.

Bustuarius. These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased in ritual games during the funeral ceremony.

Tells - foot gladiators armed with a dart with a throwing cord tied to it. Named after the units of the early Republican Roman army.

Diemaher (from the Greek "διμάχαιρος" - " wearing two daggers " ). They fought without a helmet and shield with two daggers in each hand. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, their arms and legs were bandaged with tight bandages, sometimes they wore leggings.

Gaul. The fighters were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.

Goplomakh (from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter"). The fighters were dressed in quilted, trouser-like clothes for the legs, possibly made of thick cotton or linen fabric, a loincloth, a belt, and leggings. Of armor, they were worn on the forearms (manika) of the right hand, and a helmet with brims and with a stylized griffin on the crest, decorated with a feather brush at the top and single feathers on each side. For weapons they wore a very small round shield made of a single sheet of thick bronze; examples of shields have been preserved in Pompeii. The fighters were fought against the Myrmillons or Thracians.

Lakvearium - "Fighter with a lasso." The laquearius may have been a type of retiarius who tried to catch their rivals with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.

Mirmillon - "mormylos" - "sea fish", fighters n They mastered a helmet with a stylized fish on the ridge, armor for the forearm (maniku), a loincloth and a belt, a greave on the right leg, thick windings that cover the top of the foot, and very short armor. Myrmillons were armed with a gladius sword (40-50 cm in length) and a large rectangular shield, like a legionnaire. They were fought against the Thracians, the Retiarii, and sometimes also against the Goplomakhs.

Pegniaria used a whip, a club and a shield, which was attached to the left arm with straps.

A provocateur is a “seeker”. The fighters were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a manica on the right hand, and a helmet with a visor, without brim and comb, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was rectangular at first, then often rounded. The weapons of the provocateurs were a gladius and a large rectangular shield. They were exhibited in battles with Samnites or other provocateurs.

Retiarius is a "fighter with a network." They are n appeared at the dawn of the Roman Empire. The soldiers were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. Apart from a loincloth supported by a wide belt (balteus) and a large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius had no clothing, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower face. There were retiaries who played female roles in the arena ("retiarius tunicatus"), who differed from ordinary retiaries in that they were dressed in a tunic. The Retiarii usually fought the Sectors, but sometimes the Myrmillons as well.

Rudiarium - gladiator who deserved to be released and awarded with a wooden sword - rudis, but decided to remain a gladiator. Not all rudiaries continued to fight in the arena, among them there was a special hierarchy: they could be coaches, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. a truly addictive gladiator game.

Samnites - an ancient type of heavily armed fighters that disappeared in the early imperial period, its name indicates the origin of gladiatorial battles. Historic Samnites were influential union of the Italic tribes who lived in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom the Romans fought wars from 326 to 291 BC. NS. The Samnites' equipment was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.

Sector - This type of fighter was specially designed for fights with retiarii.

Sagittarii - horse archers, armed with a flexible bow capable of launching an arrow at a long distance.

Sectors were equipped with armor and weapons, large rectangular shields and gladius. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face, except for two holes for the eyes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their rival. The helmet is round and sleek to prevent the retiary's net from snagging.

Skissor (scissor, "one who cuts", "cutting") - a gladiator who was armed with a short sword (gladius) and instead of a shield had a cutting weapon - two small swords that had one handle or put on an iron hollow rod with a sharp horizontal tip. With this cutting weapon, the scissor inflicted blows that led to minor wounds to the opponent, but the wounds were very bleeding. The rest of the scissor was similar to a sector, except for the additional protection of the right hand from shoulder to elbow, which consisted of many iron plates fastened together with strong leather laces. The helmet and protective ammunition for the pruners and scissors were the same

Tertiary also called "Suppositicius" - "substitute". In some competitions, three gladiators took part. First, the first two fought with each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called tertiary - "third".

Thracians equipped with the same armor as the goplomakhs. The Thracians wore a great helmet covering the entire head and decorated with a griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest, the Griffin was the symbol of the goddess of retribution, Nemesis. The Thracians wore a small round shield (parmula), and two large leggings. Their weapon was a Thracian curved sword-ax - sicca, about 34 cm long. Thracians fought with myrmillons or goplomachs.

The Venators arranged demonstrative hunting for wild animals, not fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. They performed tricks with animals - they put their hand in the mouth of a lion, rode a camel, holding a number of lions on a leash, forced an elephant to walk on a tightrope (Seneca Ep. 85.41). The Venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of the gladiatorial battles.

Equit ("rider"). In Sanskrit: - horse... In early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators wore scaled armor and a medium-sized round cavalry shield ( parma equestris), a helmet with brim, without a comb, but with two decorative tassels. During the Roman Empire, they wore forearm armor (manica) on their right arm, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other naked-chested gladiators), and a belt. Equites started the fight on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hastu), they dismounted and continued the fight with a short sword (gladius). Usually equits fought only with other equits.

Essedarium - "chariot fighter", (from the Latin name of the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). The Essedarii are mentioned in many descriptions from the 1st century AD. e., may have been first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain.

Pregenaria in We played at the beginning of the competition to "warm up" the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, pipes and hydraulis.

Why did Roman citizens become gladiators?
People who took the "gladiator's oath" were deprived of many of the rights of free citizens, including the right to their lives, which depended on the outcome of the battle. Perhaps this freed the citizen from debts, and made it possible to get away from creditors, and even earn money if the audience liked the arena during a gladiatorial fight. Apparently, for many Roman citizens, gladiatorial fights were a good job - “ shod, dressed, there is a roof over your head and you live on everything ready.

Gladiators had to live in special gladiatorial schools, where they studied the art of gladiatorial combat under the supervision of freedmen, that is, former gladiators. Naturally, there were doctors, masseurs, cooks at their service, providing gladiators with everything necessary to train and provide professional fighters.

A high salary was a good incentive for the brave, dexterous and warlike gladiator. Even gladiator slaves and they had every right to part of the reward for winning the arena, they got coins that the audience threw into the arena during the battle. If a former gladiator, having received his release, wished to remain in the arena, he received a generous reward. Emperor Tiberius offered a thousand gold coins to one of the freed gladiator slaves if he returned to the arena.

In the morning before the competition of gladiators, there was a hunt for wild animals (venatio), in the afternoon the execution of criminals sentenced to death was carried out, they were thrown at the mercy of animals. Before the duel, gladiators dined at public banquets with local residents. Before the start of the gladiatorial fights, the fighters entered the arena, arranging a kind of parade for the preliminary mood of the public and demonstration of their combat form, then the gladiator fights began.

The number of gladiator fights depended on the number of participating rivals. Usually battles continued until the end of the day, and each fight lasted about ten to fifteen minutes on average.

The gladiatorial duel was a hand-to-hand combat of fighters with different weapons. After one of the fighters was injured or weakened, he threw the shield to the ground and raised his finger up (hell digitum), announcing his desire to surrender and stop the fight. The judge of the gladiatorial duel was obliged to intervene and end the battle, leaving the fate of the defeated to the mumerarium (the owner of the gladiators). The decision that he made sometimes depended on the opinion of the assembled public - he could spare the (mission) of the defeated or even give freedom to one or both fighters, but such a release did not happen often, since this brought only losses to the mumeraria. Mumerarium entered the arena and handed over to the happy gladiator wooden sword (rudis), which meant that the gladiator was no longer a slave, but a free man.

The mumerarium could raise his thumb up (pollitz verso) or point it down - this meant a decision on the fate of the vanquished. The audience also expressed their opinion, showing a thumbs up, which meant "missiono" (mercy), which allows the gladiator to return to ludus and prepare for the next fight. The thumb down, meant that the winner of the battle must deal a fatal blow to the defeated fighter (coup de grace).

There was an ambivalent attitude towards male gladiators in Rome, they were loved and despised at the same time. Some citizens of Rome looked at the warlike gladiators as their idols, while others treated them with contempt as barbarians.

For a noble Roman, it was a shame to participate in gladiatorial battles in the arena, and it was considered a military valor to participate in military campaigns, battles and wars.

Autocrats - Volunteer Gladiators they could not live in gladiatorial schools, but take lessons from private trainers or visit special studios for training. Autocrats entered the gladiatorial arena quite rarely, two or three times a year.

It is believed that all gladiators were doomed to die, but in reality this is not the case! Of course, gladiators died, including by the decision of the public. However, not as often as is commonly believed. It was very expensive to educate, teach the art of war, and maintain such a fighter. It was much more profitable to receive money from the audience for the performance of a good gladiator-fighter than to pay for his burial.

Fights in the ancient Roman arena were not exclusively masculine. In 63 A.D. er. Emperor Nero issued a decree allowing free women to participate in gladiatorial tournaments. After him, Pozzuoli allows the Ethiopian women to fight.

Women in the gladiatorial arena fought like men, and trained before the performance like male gladiators. It is known that most of the gladiators in the Roman Empire were slaves, but some citizens voluntarily became gladiators and took an oath that they agree “To be doomed, to be beaten, and to die by the sword” (uri, vinciri, uerberari, ferroque necari). By the end of the Roman Republic, about half of the Roman gladiators were volunteers - a huge figure when you consider that battles took place not only in Rome, but also in many large cities of the country.

Women fought, lived and died like fighters. The life of female gladiators was arguably harder than that of men, daily physical training prepared them to wield different types of weapons during gladiatorial combat. Some Roman women, trampling on all the boundaries of all decency, attended special studios, while others trained with their gladiator fathers.

Roman historian Tacitus with condemnation mentions women with a sufficiently high social status who participated in gladiatorial battles for entertainment, and considers these performances in the arena to be their shame. “This year the gladiatorial games were just as great as they were last. However, many ladies from high society and people of senatorial rank disgraced themselves by appearing in the arena. " In general, Roman society considered female gladiatorial fights reprehensible and unworthy!

The Roman historian Suetonius (c. 69 - 122 AD) spoke of gladiatorial battles involving women, under the emperor Domitian, who surpassed Caligula, Nero and Heliogabalus in his entertainment. Dio Cassius (ancient Greek Δίων ὁ Κάσσιος,) wrote that these gladiatorial fights of women were carried out by torchlight late at night, at the end of the entire gladiatorial performance.

Roman poet Statius in a poem about gladiatorial battles under the emperor Domitian, he says that "Moors, women and pygmies" took part in the battles. “Gender, unadapted to wield weapons, competes with men in battle! You might think that a gang of Amazons is fighting. "
According to the testimony of the Roman senator and historian Tacitus (c. 56 AD - 177 AD), even noble and wealthy women did not hesitate to appear on the arena, wishing to perform in the gladiatorial arena and receive the laurels of the victors.

Roman poet-satirist Decem Juvenal in Satire IV (55 AD - 127 AD), denouncing the vices of Roman society, caustically ridiculed women gladiators: and described the gladiatorial performance in detail:
“Have you heard that women need war capes and oil to fight?
Have you seen the pieces of wood that they pound and crush,
Skillfully piercing them through with a sword or a spear?
This is about the girls who trumpet for the glory of Flora.
Or maybe they are preparing themselves to enter the arena for a real fight?
But is it befitting for decent women to stick their head in a helmet,
Despising your gender, with which you were born?
They love men's affairs, but they don't want to be men
After all, little things (as they think) delight their lives!
What "pride" does the husband feel at the sight of a market in which
His wife is as if for sale - in belts, shields and skins!
Hear her grunts and moans as she works hard, parrying and attacking;
Look at her neck being bent by a heavy helmet.
See how her legs are bandaged like tree trunks
Laugh as she drops her armor and weapons and reaches for the goblet.
How the daughters of our praetors and consuls are degraded!
Have you seen big-breasted Amazons versus wild boars at the games?
Isn't it more disgusting than gladiatorial girls and naked whores? "

It is quite clear that female gladiator fights are not fiction at all, but a fact captured in ancient literature and history! Archaeological finds confirm the existence of female gladiators in Ancient Rome, the inscriptions of the local magistrate from Ostia about the organization of female gladiator fights, burial female gladiators, bas-relief from Helicarnassus , which shows two women in the outfit of the pruners. They wear belts, greaves and plates on their arms. Each woman is armed with a sword and shield, but both fight bareheaded and bare chest. Their names are indicated under the images and confirm that these are women - one is called Amazonia, the other Achilles. The inscription at the top in Latin means "missae sunt", that is, both of them, or one of them, received an honorary exemption from the fight or the so-called "mercy" (missio) from the audience watching the battle.

Legend and Achilles.

Achilles of Pergamon, a Roman province in Asia Minor, was the daughter of the 'castor' Pergamon. The years of her life fell on the reign of the emperor Marcus Aurelius 'the Wise', in 162 AD, when her life changed dramatically, she was about 20 years old.

Unlike her noble peers, Achilles was an extraordinary girl, had a large, strong physique and a cocky character. Since it was her father's job to organize gladiatorial games for the people of Pergamum, his daughter was intimately familiar with the gladiatorial business. When she was 17, she began attending the urban ‘ludum’ (gladiatorial school), where she watched gladiator training and violent fights. Achilles was no different from other noble women who were partial to gladiators; they openly admired their courage and did not miss the gladiatorial fights. Achilles began taking lessons in gladiatorial combat from the school manager and former gladiator Partakos. In Ludum, she met the famous scientist healer Claudius Galen, who studied human anatomy on wounded and killed gladiators, later he became the personal physician of Emperor Aurelius. Galen was about thirty years old and fell in love with an attractive young girl. Galen did not dissuade Achille from studying gladiatorial art, but rather taught her the basics of human anatomy, showing the most vulnerable and painful points of the body for blows. Since Achilles was born left-handed, Parthakos taught her how to use this advantage when fighting right-handed people.
This knowledge helped her Achilles improve in the art of armed martial arts, she was preparing to really fight in the arena. While training with a wooden sword, Achilles mastered the basics of gladiatorial art, as well as some wrestling techniques. At the age of 19, she fought for the first time in a female gladiatorial match. Her skill exceeded all expectations, she was a strong and beautiful girl.

A rival for Achilles was quickly found, it was Anahita, a prisoner captured in the Parthian army. She was a real warrior and fought in the gladiatorial arena of Smyrna. Anahita was so belligerent and fearless that she was nicknamed "Amazonia." Soon, Achilia and the Amazon had to meet in the gladiatorial arena. Well familiar with the basics of gladiatorial art, After intense training, Achilles fought with the wild and fierce Sarmatian warrior Amazonia, who fought like a tigress, but was wounded and lost the battle to a more experienced and powerful opponent. Achilles' gladiatorial career ended as suddenly as it began,

The emperor's wife, Faustina, famous for her waywardness and cruelty, loved gladiatorial fights and tried not to miss a single one. After the victory of the Romans over the Parthians in Armenia, Faustina toured the provinces and attended gladiatorial games in the cities of Asia Minor. At Halicarnassus, south of Pergamum, she saw Achilles and Anahita duel. The formidable and invincible Anahita struck Achille with a dexterous blow, and she asked for ‘missiono’ (mercy). The audience was in good spirits, and life was given to the defeated girl. Faustina was amazed at how fiercely and skillfully the warlike women gladiators fought and ordered to carve a sculpture in stone in memory of the brave warriors. A talented local sculptor completed the order, and the bas-relief depicting Achilles and the Amazon has survived to this day and reminds of these two women warriors.

The bas-relief of fighting women gladiators preserved this fight for centuries "as an example to posterity."

Gladiator fights were banned in AD 400, when Christianity was adopted in the Roman Empire.

2017-11-12

On one wall in Pompeii you can read the words: "Celadus the Thrace is a hero of girls who makes hearts beat." These words, which have come down to us through the centuries, are mute witnesses of the charm that still rivets our imagination. The afternoon sun illuminates the arena of the amphitheater, where the Thracian Celadus and other gladiators fight. They are not fighting formidable legionnaires or barbarian hordes. They kill each other for the pleasure of the public.

In the beginning, prisoners of war and those sentenced to death were gladiators. The laws of Ancient Rome allowed them to participate in gladiatorial battles. In case of victory (with the money received), you could redeem your life. But not all gladiators were slaves or criminals. Among them there were also volunteers who wanted to risk their lives for the sake of thrill or glory. Their names were written on the walls, and respectable citizens talked about them. For nearly 600 years, the arena has been one of the most popular entertainment in the Roman world. Almost no one opposed this spectacle. Everyone, from Caesar to the last plebeian, wanted to see the bloodshed.

It is widely believed that the gladiatorial fights were caused by Etruscan funeral rituals. Nevertheless, it is known that at the funeral of Brutus Pera in 264 BC. three fights of gladiators took place. This case was recorded by the Greek-Syrian historian Nicholas of Damascus, who lived during the period of Emperor Augustus. Over the next hundred years, the custom of fighting among slaves at funerals spread. In 174 BC. Titus Flamininus fought a munera - a three-day battle, during which 74 gladiators fought.

They tried to spend Muneru in December, simultaneously with Saturnalia. As you know, Saturn was a deity "responsible" for self-sacrifice. At the same time, the muners were not just a number in the funeral program. Fights with animals - venations - were also practiced. Various wild beasts brought from all over the empire were killed by specially trained fighters - venators. Venice served as a symbol of the subordination of wild animals to Roman rule. Fights involving lions, tigers and other dangerous predators showed that the power of Rome encompasses not only people, but also animals. Any culture that was not part of Rome was declared barbaric, the only purpose of which was to wait until Rome conquered it.

As more and more wealthy people became convinced that gladiatorial fights were an excellent way to perpetuate the memory of the deceased, they more and more often included in their will the requirement to hold such a fight at their commemoration. Soon, the simple fight of several pairs of gladiators became boring to the public. To impress the impression of people, it was necessary to arrange grandiose spectacles in terms of the number of fighters or the method of combat. Munera gradually became more spectacular and expensive. Fighters began to be equipped with armor, while the style of armor often copied the style of any of the peoples conquered by Rome. Thus, Munera became a demonstration of the power of Rome.

Over time, the munera became so much a custom that a person who did not bequeathed to arrange a battle after his death risked defaming his name after death as a curmudgeon. Many played games in honor of their deceased ancestors. The audience expected the next fight after the death of one of the wealthy citizens. Suetonius described the case that in Pollentia (modern Pollenzo, near Turin), the public did not allow one former centurion to be buried until the heirs organized a battle. Moreover, it was not a simple disorder in the city, but a real mutiny that forced Tiberius to send troops into the city. One deceased in his will ordered a fight between his former homosexual lovers. Since all the lovers were young boys, it was decided to annul this clause of the will. Munera eventually evolved into true gladiatorial combat, usually held in purpose-built arenas. The first arenas were built in the form of amphitheaters around the Forum Romanum. The stands were wooden, and the arena itself was covered with sand. Sand in Latin will be garena, hence the name of the entire structure.

The amphitheater built by Flavius, known as the Colosseum, was the first stone building of its kind. The floor of the arena was at first sandy, but then it was rebuilt, organizing a network of underground passages under it - hypogeia. Various mechanical devices were located in the passages, facilitating a quick change of scenery in the arena. With the help of these moves, animals and gladiators were also released onto the stage.

Entering the amphitheater, spectators could purchase various souvenirs. Bone or clay tessera plates served as entrance tickets. The tesserae were distributed free of charge a few weeks before the start of the fighting. The audience was seated in their places by special ministers - locaria.

There were sitting tribunes for wealthy citizens. There were standing tribunes for the plebs. The Colosseum also had a gallery where the poorest spectators gathered. It was a matter of honor to take the place that was due to its status.

In the tunnels leading to the stands, various "entrepreneurs" were in charge, from food merchants to prostitutes. As the program progressed, the public's excitement grew. Classical writers describe the roar of an excited crowd as "the roar of the storm." Among the spectators in the stands were also merchants who offered food, flags and lists of gladiators. Betting was made on these lists. Ovid says that asking a neighbor to read the program was considered a plausible excuse to meet a girl. However, under Augustus, separate places were allocated for women. The front rows were occupied by senators, soldiers, married men, as well as students and teachers. The women were taken to the upper ranks.

The shape of the amphitheater reflected heat inward and sound outward. Any sound made by the gladiator could be clearly heard in the stands, even in the uppermost rows. Hence the rule that gladiators should not utter unnecessary screams and be silent even in case of injury. Even in the worst places, the audience could see the arena perfectly.

By the end of the 2nd century BC. battles, which lasted several days in a row with the participation of more than one hundred gladiators, did not surprise anyone. There were also people for whom the maintenance and training of gladiators became a profession. They were called Lanists. They were often former gladiators themselves. The social status of the Lanist was low, they were despised for making money on the death of other people, while remaining completely safe themselves. If gladiators were compared to prostitutes, then Lanists can be compared to pimps. To give themselves a little respectability, the Lanists called themselves "the merchant surname of the gladiator", which in modern language can be translated as "the commercial director of the gladiatorial troupe." The essence of their activity was that they found physically strong slaves in the slave markets, and preferably prisoners of war and even criminals, ransomed them, taught them all the wisdom necessary for performing in the arena, and then rented them out to everyone who wanted to arrange gladiatorial fights.

Entering the ring, gladiators had to proclaim: Ave Ceasar, morituri te salutant! - Those who go to death greet you, Caesar! According to tradition, before the start of the battle, the gladiator fighters were divided into pairs and the first demonstration battle began - prolusio, its participants did not really fight, their weapons were wooden, the movements looked more like a dance than the battle was accompanied by the accompaniment of a lute or flute. At the end of the "lyrical introduction", he raised a bugle and announced that the first real battle would begin now. Gladiators who changed their minds to fight were beaten, and sometimes even killed with whips.

The junior gladiators entered the battle in pairs, determined by lot. The audience was shown the weapons of gladiators to convince everyone that they were fighting. The determined couples dispersed across the arena to the sound of trumpets and the battle began. In the arena, in addition to the fighters, there were doctors who gave commands to the fighters, directing the course of the battles. In addition, there were slaves at the ready with whips and sticks, designed to "cheer" the gladiator who for some reason refused to fight in full force. After the duel of inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

If any of the gladiators received a severe wound and could not continue the fight, he raised his hand, showing surrender. From that moment on, his fate depended on the opinion of the audience. The defeated could have been spared as a worthy fighter, or they could have been condemned to death as a coward and inept. Until recently, it was believed that the audience expressed their attitude to the vanquished with the help of their thumb. If the finger is directed upwards - spare, if downwards - finish off. Recent studies have shown that the opposite was true. A raised finger meant "put it on the blade", and a lowered finger meant "a weapon in the ground." Considering the fact that not too skillful gladiators were the first to perform, the fate of the defeated was a foregone conclusion. The corpses of gladiators were removed from the arena using wheeled carts. The slaves removed the armor from the slain. These slaves had their own small informal "business". They collected the blood of slain gladiators and sold it to epileptics as the best remedy for their illness. After the duel of inexperienced gladiators, the best fighters entered the arena.

In spectacular battles, when people fought with animals, the duel was considered finished only if one of the opponents was killed: a man by a beast or an animal by a man.

Gladiators were at the lowest rung of the social ladder, and after the uprising of Spartacus, the attitude towards gladiators became especially wary. Soldiers and guards watched the gladiators, stopping attempts at disobedience or suicide. Prisoners of war sent to the gladiatorial school wore slave collars and shackles that hindered movement. Volunteers, unlike slaves, did not wear chains. Free people, unlike slaves, did not pose a threat to society. Freedmen's slaves in their status approached free citizens. Petronius the Arbiter, in his Satyricon, extols the virtues of a traveling group of gladiators, saying: “The three-day show is the best I've ever seen. These were not simple swordsmen, but mostly free people. "

Sometimes the offspring of noble families also fell into the arena. Petronius the Arbiter mentions a woman from a senatorial family who became a female gladiator. Lucian of Samosatsky, who hated gladiatorial battles, tells about Sisinny, a man who decided to join gladiators in order to win 10,000 drachmas and pay the ransom for his friend.

Some people became gladiators out of a desire to get a thrill. Even the emperors pecked at this bait. Emperor Commodus (180-192 AD) was a fan of gladiatorial fights since childhood. This made it possible for the politically opponents of his father, Marcus Aurelius, to say that the emperor's wife had a young heir from the gladiator. One way or another, Commodus spent most of his time with gladiators. As an adult, he began to participate in battles as a sector. By the time of his death, Commodus had managed to win more than 700 fights, but a contemporary of Commodus, Victor, notes that the emperor's opponents were armed with lead weapons.

The bulk of the professional fighters of the arena were natives of gladiatorial schools. During the reign of Octavian Augustus (about 10 BC), there were 4 imperial schools in Rome: Big, Morning, where bestiaries - gladiators who fought with wild animals, the school of Gauls and the school of the Dacians were trained. During their studies at school, all gladiators were well fed and expertly treated. An example of this is the fact that the famous ancient Roman physician Galen worked for a long time at the Great Imperial School.

Gladiators slept in pairs in small closets with an area of ​​4-6 square meters. The workouts, which lasted from morning to evening, were very intense. Under the guidance of a teacher, a former gladiator, the novices were trained in swordsmanship. Each of them was given a wooden sword and a shield woven from willow. The chaotic clink of metal made the audience melancholy, so the instructors trained gladiators to fight not only effectively, but also effectively. In the Roman army, it was customary for beginners to exercise on wooden pillars-paluses with a height of 1.7 m. In gladiatorial schools, they preferred to use stuffed animals stuffed with straw, which gave a more visual representation of the enemy. To strengthen the muscles, the next after the wooden iron training weapon was specially made 2 times heavier than the combat one.

When a beginner properly comprehended the basics of martial art, he, depending on his abilities and physical fitness, was assigned to specialized groups of one type or another of gladiators. The least capable students fell into andabats. They were armed with only two daggers, without any additional protection, complemented by a helmet with two holes that did not coincide at all with the eyes. Therefore, the Andabats were forced to fight each other almost blindly, swinging their weapons at random. The attendants "helped" them, pushing them from behind with red-hot iron rods. The audience was always very merry, looking at the unfortunate, and this part of gladiatorial battles was considered the most amusing among the Romans.

Gladiators, like Roman soldiers, had their own charter, some historians call it a code of honor, but in fact this is a conventional name. since initially a gladiator, by definition, is not a free person, and the Roman slaves as such did not have a concept of honor. When a person entered the gladiatorial school, especially if he was free before, he needed to perform a number of actions, in many ways purely formal, in order to be legally considered a gladiator. Gladiators took an oath and took an oath similar to a military one, according to which they were to be considered "formally dead" and transferred their lives to the ownership of the gladiatorial school in which they lived, studied, trained and died.

There were a number of unspoken rules and conventions that every gladiator had to adhere to and not violate them under any circumstances. The gladiator always had to remain silent during the fight - the only way he could contact the public was through gestures. The second unspoken points was the observance of certain "rules" of dignity, which can be compared with the rules of the samurai. A fighter - gladiator had no right to cowardice and fear of death. If a fighter felt that he was dying, he had to open his face to the enemy, so that he finished him off, looking at his eyes, or cut his own throat, removing his helmet and opening his face and eyes to the audience, and they should have seen what was in them. there is not a drop of fear. The third law was that the gladiator could not choose his opponent himself, obviously, this was done so that the fighters in the arena did not settle their personal scores and grievances. Entering the arena, the gladiator did not know until the last with whom he would have to fight.

It was fashionable among the Roman aristocrats to have their own personal gladiators, who not only earned money for the owner by performing, but also served as personal guards, which was extremely relevant during the civil unrest of the late Republic. In this respect, Julius Caesar outdid everyone, who at one time contained up to 2 thousand gladiator-bodyguards who made up a real army. I must say that they became gladiators not only by coercion of the slave owner or by a court sentence to the arena, but also absolutely voluntarily, in the pursuit of fame and fortune.

Despite all the dangers of this profession, a simple but tough guy from the Roman social bottom really had a chance to get rich. And although the chances of dying on the blood-soaked sand of the arena were much greater, many risked. The most successful of them, in addition to the love of the Roman mob, and it happened, and Roman matrons, received substantial cash prizes from fans and organizers of battles, as well as interest on the rates. In addition, Roman spectators often threw money, jewelry and other expensive trinkets into the arena to the especially beloved winner, which also accounted for a considerable share of the income. Emperor Nero, for example, once presented a whole palace to the gladiator Spikula. And many of the famous fighters gave fencing lessons to everyone, receiving a very decent fee for this.

Nevertheless, luck in the arena smiled on very few - the audience wanted to see blood and death, so the gladiators had to fight in earnest, driving the crowd to a frenzy.

Animal catchers worked tirelessly, devastating the Roman provinces in Africa and Asia, as well as adjacent territories. Thousands of professionals were involved in this extremely dangerous but equally profitable business. In addition to fighting people in arenas, hundreds and thousands of lions, tigers, wolves, leopards, bears, panthers, wild boars, wild bulls, bison, elephants, hippos, rhinos, antelopes, deer, giraffes, monkeys died. Once the catchers managed to bring even polar bears to Rome! Apparently, impossible tasks for them simply did not exist.

All these animals were victims of bestiary gladiators. Their training was much longer than that of classical gladiators. Pupils of the famous Morning School, which received this name due to the fact that animal persecution took place in the mornings, were taught not only to handle weapons, but also to train, and were also introduced to the characteristics and habits of different animals.

Ancient Roman trainers reached unprecedented heights in their art: bears walked on a tightrope, and lions put a bestiary under the feet of a driven, but still living hare, monkeys rode ferocious Hyrcanian hounds, and deer were harnessed to chariots. These amazing tricks were innumerable. But when the satiated crowd demanded blood, fearless venators (from the Latin wenator - hunter) appeared in the arena, who knew how to kill animals not only with various types of weapons, but also with their bare hands. It was considered the highest chic for them to throw a cloak over the head of a lion or leopard, wrap it up, and then kill the beast with one blow of a sword or spear.

Gladiator fights took place in different ways. There were fights of single pairs, and sometimes several dozen, or even hundreds of pairs fought at the same time. At times, whole performances were played out in the arena, introduced into the practice of mass entertainment by Julius Caesar. So, in a matter of minutes, grandiose decorations were erected, depicting the walls of Carthage, and gladiators, dressed and armed as legionaries and Carthaginians, represented the storming of the city. Or a whole forest of freshly cut trees grew in the arena, and the gladiators depicted an attack by the Germans on the same legionnaires from an ambush. The fantasy of the directors of ancient Roman shows knew no bounds.

And although it was extremely difficult to surprise the Romans with something, the Emperor Claudius, who ruled in the middle of the 1st century, was quite successful. The Naumachia (staging of a naval battle) embodied by his order was of such a scale that it turned out to be capable of capturing the imagination of all the inhabitants of the Eternal City, young and old. Although naumachii were arranged quite rarely, as they were very expensive even for emperors and required careful development.

He spent the first Naumachia in 46 BC. Julius Caesar. Then, on the Champ de Mars of Rome, a huge artificial lake was dug for the naval battle. This performance was attended by 16 galleys, which were 4 thousand rowers and 2 thousand gladiator soldiers. It seemed that it was already impossible to arrange a larger-scale spectacle, but in 2 BC. The first Roman emperor, Octavian Augustus, after a year of preparation, introduced the Naumachia to the Romans with the participation of 24 ships and 3 thousand soldiers, not counting the rowers who played out the battle between the Greeks and Persians at Salamis.

Only the aforementioned Emperor Claudius managed to break this record. To carry out the naumachia he had conceived, Lake Fuqing, located 80 kilometers from Rome, was chosen. No other nearby reservoir simply could not accommodate 50 real battle triremes and biremes, the crews of which amounted to 20 thousand criminals sentenced to the arena. To do this, Claudius devastated all the city's prisons, putting everyone who could bear arms on ships.

And in order to discourage so many criminals gathered in one place from organizing a rebellion, the lake was surrounded by troops. The naval battle took place in that part of the lake where the hills formed a natural amphitheater. There was no shortage of spectators: about 500 thousand people - almost the entire adult population of Rome, settled down on the slopes.

The ships, divided into two fleets, depicted the confrontation between the Rhodians and the Sicilians. The battle, which began at about 10 am, ended only at four o'clock in the afternoon, when the last "Sicilian" ship surrendered. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote: "The fighting spirit of the fought criminals was not inferior to the fighting spirit of real warriors." The waters of the lake were red with blood, not to mention the wounded, only more than 3 thousand people were killed. After the battle, Claudius pardoned all the survivors, with the exception of a few crews who, in his opinion, evaded the battle. The audience was absolutely delighted with what they saw. None of the subsequent emperors managed to "outplay" Claudius. It is no coincidence that literally the whole city mourned his death, because he, like no one else, perhaps with the exception of Nero, knew how to entertain the public. And even though during his reign, Claudius showed himself to be far from being a brilliant statesman, this did not prevent him from being almost the most revered emperor among the people.

It happened that the fight dragged on, and both wounded gladiators could not defeat each other for a long time. Then the audience could stop the fight themselves and demand from the editor - the organizer of the games - to release both fighters from the arena. And the editor obeyed the “voice of the people”. The same thing happened if the gladiator pleased the audience with his skill and courage so much that she demanded that he be immediately handed a wooden training sword - rudis - as a symbol of complete liberation not only from battles in the arena, but also from slavery. Of course, this only concerned prisoners of war and slaves, but not volunteers.

The name of the gladiator Flamma has survived to this day, during whose career the admiring spectators demanded four times to be handed a wooden sword, but he refused all four times! It is possible that Flamma showed such unheard-of stubbornness in the pursuit of fame and money. One way or another, but he succeeded, he left the arena voluntarily, more or less unharmed, and at a fairly mature age and being the owner of a decent fortune.

Gladiator fights were not alien to the most educated people of that time. Cicero, for example, assessed these games this way: “It is good for people to see that slaves can fight with courage. If even a simple slave can show courage, what should be the Romans? In addition, games accustom warlike people to the form of murder and prepare them for war. " Pliny, Tacitus and many other prominent Roman writers and thinkers were ardent admirers of gladiatorial spectacles. The only exception was, perhaps, the philosopher Seneca, who in every possible way advocated their prohibition, which not least led to his forced suicide on the orders of his crowned pupil Nero.

Almost all Roman emperors strove to surpass each other in the grandeur of their games in order to win the love of the crowd. Emperor Titus Flavius ​​at the opening of the Colosseum, which could accommodate up to 80 thousand spectators and immediately became the main arena of Ancient Rome, ordered to kill 17 thousand Jews in various ways, who had been working on its construction for ten years. Emperor Domitian, being a virtuoso in archery, loved to amuse the audience, hitting the head of a lion or bear with arrows so that the arrows seemed to become horns for them. And naturally horned animals - deer, bulls, bison, and so on, he killed with a shot in the eye. I must say that the Roman people loved this ruler very much.

Met among the Roman emperors and merry fellows. For example, a very funny story is connected with the name of Gallienus. One jeweler who sold fake gems and was sentenced to the arena for it, the bestiaries were kicked into the middle of the arena and placed in front of a closed lion's cage. The unfortunate man with a sinking heart was waiting for an inevitable and, moreover, a terrible death, and then the door of the cage opened and ... a chicken came out of it. Unable to withstand the stress, the jeweler fainted. When the audience laughed enough, Gallienus ordered to announce: "This man was deceiving, therefore he was deceived." Then the jeweler was brought to his senses and released on all four sides.

By the beginning of the 4th century, gladiator fights and animal persecution began to gradually decline. This was the time when the once Great Roman Empire began literally to succumb to the blows of numerous "barbarian" tribes. The situation was aggravated by the incessant economic crisis - the Romans themselves practically did not work, and the imported goods were constantly becoming more expensive. Therefore, the Roman emperors of that period had enough worries, in addition to the device of expensive games. And, nevertheless, they continued, albeit without the same scope. Finally, gladiatorial fights were banned 72 years before the fall of the Roman Empire.