G ladiator games originated from the Etruscan funerary rite, which once included human sacrifice.

Over time, the rite changed: they stopped killing those doomed to death immediately, but forced them to fight near the grave with swords in their hands, and thus the weak died, and the strong remained alive, causing the delight of those present. The Romans first saw this cruel spectacle in 264 BC e. at the Bull Market, where three pairs of gladiators fought at a wake for Brutus Pere hosted by his sons. The spectacle seemed so unusual and remarkable to the Romans that the event was entered into the annals of Rome.

The connection between gladiatorial games and commemorations was never forgotten, they were called "funeral games". Their official name is mumus ("duty"), the debt of the living towards the dead.

In 105 BC. e. gladiatorial games are introduced into the number of public spectacles. From now on the state

entrusts to his magistrates the care of their dispensation. Gladiator games are becoming a favorite spectacle in Rome and throughout Italy, and those who want to advance are quickly taking into account. Caesar in 65 BC e. gave games in which 320 pairs of gladiators took part. His enemies were frightened: not only these armed fellows were terrible; what was terrible was that luxury games became a sure way to win the favor of the people and secure votes in the elections. In 63 BC. e. At the suggestion of Cicero, a law was passed that forbade a candidate for magistrates to “give gladiators” for two years before the election. No one, however, could forbid a private person to "give" them under the pretext of a commemoration for his relative, especially if the latter bequeathed to his heir to arrange games.

In the event that the wounded gladiator remained alive, his fate was decided by the public. Depending on the opinion of the crowd, the winner had to finish off the lying one or leave him alive if he deserved life by valiant resistance. In the games held in Rome itself, the opinion of the emperor was decisive. The crowd "voted" with gestures that changed over time. Although it is traditionally accepted that the “raised finger” meant “Life”, and the lowered finger meant “Death” (in this form, gestures are now used for approval and condemnation), on most ancient games regardless of direction, a protruding finger meant "death", symbolizing the movement of a finishing sword, and "Life" simply meant a clenched fist. Not the last role was played by cries with wishes.

In 63 a.d. er. Emperor Nero issued a decree allowing free women to participate in
gladiatorial tournaments. After him, Pozzuoli allows Ethiopian women to fight.
And the emperor Domitiano in 89 brings dwarf gladiators to the arena.

Gladiator fights were banned in 400 AD when Christianity took over in the Roman Empire.

Depending on the weapons and the specifics of their participation in fights, the following types of gladiators were distinguished:

Andabat (from the Greek word "άναβαται" - "raised, elevated") They were dressed in chain mail, like the eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights in medieval times. jousting tournaments but without being able to see each other.

Bestiary: Armed with a javelin or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but outlaws (noxia) sentenced to battle with predatory animals, with a high probability of death for the condemned. Later, bestiaries became well-trained gladiators, specializing in combat with various exotic predators using darts. The battles were organized in such a way that the beasts had little chance of defeating the bestiary.

Bustuary: These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased at ritual games during the funeral rite.

Dimacher (from the Greek "διμάχαιρος" - "carrying two daggers"). Two swords were used, one in each hand. They fought without a helmet and shield with two daggers. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, their arms and legs were bandaged with tight bandages, sometimes they wore leggings.

Equit ("horseman"): In early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators were dressed in scaly armor, wearing a medium-sized round cavalry shield (parma equestris), a helmet with a brim, without a crest, but with two decorative tassels. During the Empire, they wore armor for the forearm (maniku) on right hand, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other gladiators who fought bare-chested), and a belt. Equites started the fight on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hasta), they dismounted and continued to fight with a short sword (gladius). Equits usually only fought other Equits.

Gallus: Were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.

Essedarius ("chariot fighter", from the Latin name for the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). Perhaps they were first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain. Essedaria are mentioned in many descriptions from the 1st century AD. e. Since there are no images of the Essedarii, nothing is known about their weapons and fighting style.

Hoplomachus (from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter"): They were dressed in quilted, trouser-like leg clothing, possibly made of canvas, loincloth, belt, greaves, forearm armor (maniku) on the right arm, and a helmet with a brim and with a stylized griffin on the crest, which could be decorated with a tassel of feathers at the top and single feathers on each side. They were armed with a gladius and a very small round shield made from a single sheet of thick bronze (examples from Popmpeii have been preserved). They were put up for fights against the Mirmillons or the Thracians. It is possible that the Goplomakhs descended from the earlier Samnites after it became “politically incorrect” to use the name of a people who had become friendly to the Romans.

Laquearii ("lasso fighter"): Laquearii may have been a type of retiarii that tried to catch their rivals with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.

Mirmillon: They wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest (from the Latin "mormylos" - " sea ​​fish”), as well as armor for the forearm (maniku), loincloth and belt, leggings on right leg, thick windings covering the top of the foot, and very short armor with a recess for stuffing at the top of the foot. Myrmillons were armed with a gladius (40-50 cm long) and a large rectangular shield, like legionnaires. They were put up for battle against the Thracians, Retiarii, sometimes also against the hoplomachi.

Pegniarius: They used a whip, a club and a shield that was attached to the left arm with straps.

Provocateur ("applicant"): Their outfit could be different, depending on the nature of the games. They were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a maniku on the right arm, and a helmet with a visor, without brim and crest, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The provocateurs were armed with a gladius and a large rectangular shield. Exhibited for battles with the Samnites or other provocateurs.

Retiarius ("net fighter"): Appeared at the dawn of the Empire. They were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. In addition to a loincloth supported by a wide belt (balteus) and a large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius had no clothing, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower face. There were retiarii who played female roles in the arena (“retiarius tunicatus”), which differed from ordinary retiarii in that they were dressed in a tunic. The retiarii usually fought with the secutors, but sometimes with the myrmillons. .

Rudiarium: Gladiators who deserved to be freed (rewarded with a wooden sword called rudis) but chose to remain gladiators. Not all rudiarii continued to fight in the arena, there was a special hierarchy among them: they could be trainers, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. Rudiarii fighters were very popular among the public, as they had vast experience and one could expect real show.

Sagittarius: Mounted archers armed with a flexible bow capable of firing an arrow over a long distance.

Samnite: Samnites, ancient type heavily armed fighters, which disappeared in the early imperial period, indicated by its name the origin of gladiator fights. The historical Samnites were an influential group of Italic tribes living in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom the Romans fought wars from 326 to 291 BC. e. The equipment of the Samnites was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.

Secutor: This type of fighter was specifically designed for fights with retiarii. The secutors were a variation of the myrmillons and were equipped with similar armor and weapons, including a large rectangular shield and a gladius. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face, except for two holes for the eyes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their rival. The helmet was practically round and smooth, so that the net of the retiarius could not catch on it.

Scissor (scissor, “one who cuts”, “cutting”) - a gladiator who was armed with a short sword (gladius) and instead of a shield had a cutting weapon that resembled scissors (essentially two small swords that had one handle) or, with another layout, put on the left hand an iron hollow rod with a sharp horizontal tip. With this cutting weapon, the skissor delivered blows that led to minor wounds of the opponent, but the wounds bled very much (several arteries were cut, which naturally caused fountains of blood). Otherwise, the skissor was similar to a secutor, except for the additional protection of the right arm (from the shoulder to the elbow), which consisted of many iron plates fastened together with strong leather cords. The helmet and protective ammunition for secutors and skissors were the same

Tertiary (also called "Suppositicius" - "substitutes"): Three gladiators participated in some competitions. First, the first two fought each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called the tertiary. Tertiarii also came to replace if the gladiator declared for the fight, for one reason or another, could not enter the arena.

Thracian: The Thracians were equipped with the same armor as the hoplomakhs. They have had grand slam, covering the entire head and decorated with a stylized griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest (the griffin was a symbol of the goddess of retribution Nemesis), a small round or flattened shield (parmula), and two large greaves. Their weapon was a Thracian curved sword (sicca, about 34 cm long). They usually fought the Myrmillons or the Hoplomaches.

Velit: Gladiators on foot, armed with a dart with a throwing cord tied to it. Named after units of the early Republican army.

Venator: Specialized in show-hunting animals, not fighting them in close combat like bestiaries. Venators also performed tricks with animals: they put their hand in the mouth of a lion; rode on a camel, keeping a lion on a leash nearby; made an elephant walk on a tightrope (Seneca Ep. 85.41). Strictly speaking, the venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of the gladiator fights.

Pregenary: Performed at the beginning of the competition to "warm up" the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, pipes and water organs (hydraulis).

Velit ( Veles, lots of - Velites) - a gladiator armed with darts (hastae velitares). Velites gladiators followed the weapons and tactics of the ancient Roman light infantry velites, by analogy with which they were named.

Goplomakh

Hoplomachus (hoplomachus from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter") is a fairly common type of gladiator. He imitated Greek hoplites with his equipment. The word hoplomachus itself comes from the Greek ὁπλομάχος ("armed fighter" or "warrior with hoplon"). The goplomakh's armor consisted of a helmet, a small round shield-parma or a large legionnaire's shield made of one sheet of thick bronze (sample from Pompeii survived), quilted windings ( fasciae) on both legs or high leggings (ocreae), armor for the forearm-manica (manica) on the right hand. The goplomakh's helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grate, and upper reaches with a plume. Feathers were inserted on the sides of the helmet. The goplomakh was armed with a spear-gasta (hasta) and a dagger-pugio ( pugio).

The spear allowed the hoplomakh to fight at a long distance. In the event of the loss of a spear, the goplomakh went into close combat, fought with a dagger. The traditional opponents of the hoplomachus were the Mirmilon or, more rarely, the Thracian.

Gaul

Gall ( Gallus) - a type of gladiators of the period of the Republic. They were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield. The armor and weapons of the Gaulish gladiators were supposed to resemble Gallic warriors. It is certain that in the 1st century BC. e. Gallic gladiators "transformed" into Mirmilons.

dimacher

Dimaher ( dimachaerus) is a fairly rare type of gladiator. The word dimachaerus literally means - “with two sabers”, “double saber” (from the Greek Διμάχαιρος). The dimacher's armor consisted of a helmet, short leggings and chain mail (Lorika hamata). The helmet had a closed visor with a grille and wide brim. He was armed with two curved mahair swords ( machaera), or sikam daggers.

It is not known exactly what type of gladiators were the opponents of the dimacher in the arena. But the Romans considered dimacher one of the most dangerous fighters.

Equities

Equity (eques, set - equites) - a type of gladiator who fought on a horse. Literally, "rider". Also called the ancient Roman cavalrymen. Unlike most gladiators, who fought naked to the waist, the Equites wore sleeveless tunics girded with a belt. Equita armor consisted of a helmet, a cavalry round shield-parma (parma equestris) with a diameter of 60 cm and armor for the forearm (manica) on the right hand. The helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grille and had no headwaters. Feathers were inserted on the sides. Sometimes the Equites wore scaly armor (Lorika squamata). Equit was armed with a spear-gasta ( hasta) and gladius. Equites opened gladiator fights: they fought in the morning, immediately after the solemn pomp, anticipating the persecution of animals, the execution of criminals and the fights on foot gladiators. Equita battle tactics inherited the usual tactics of the Roman cavalry: throwing a spear, they dismounted and fought with a sword - horseback combat at a time when stirrups were not yet known was very inconvenient. In the arena, equites fought exclusively among themselves.

Mirmilon

Mirmilon, murmilon ( myrmillo, murmillo, plural - myrmillones, murmillones) is one of the most common types of gladiators. According to one version, these gladiators got their name because on the helmet they wore the image of the fish “mormir” (Greek Μόρμυλος, μορμύρος). It should be borne in mind that now "mormirs" are called African freshwater fish, however, in ancient times, the word μόρμυλος, μορμύρος could also refer to a certain type of fish common in the Mediterranean Sea. The Myrmilons themselves are thought to have descended from Gaulish gladiators. Mirmilon's armor consisted of a helmet, a bracer on his right hand, a short (below the knee) greaves on his left leg, and a shield - scutum. He did not have a shell, he fought naked to the waist, which made it possible to demonstrate to the public a powerful torso and muscles. Myrmilon's helmet had a wide brim, a visor with a lattice and a characteristic crest in the form of a fish, which could be silver plated. Myrmilon fought with an ordinary sword of the Roman infantry - a gladius. When from the II-III centuries AD. e. the mirmilons received a long sword instead of a gladius - spatu, they became known as "mirmilons-spataria" ( myrmillones-spatharii).

The traditional opponent of Mirmilon was a Thracian. The Mirmilon-Thracian pair was one of the most common during gladiator fights. Less commonly, the Myrmilons fought with hoplomachus or retiarii, but never among themselves.

Thracian

Thracian (Thraex, set - Thraeces) - one of the most common types of gladiators. Reliably, this type of gladiators appeared as a result of the appearance in the 1st century BC. e. a large number of Thracian prisoners of war. The equipment of this type repeated the national Thracian: it was armed with a curved dagger-siko, the armor consisted of a helmet, quilted windings on both legs, high greaves, a small rectangular strongly arched shield and a bracer on the right hand. The Thracian's helmet had wide brim, a visor with a grate and a characteristic headstock in the form of a griffin - one of the symbols of the goddess of revenge Nemesis.

Thracian gladiators were considered a pronounced attacking type of fighters. The curved dagger gave them certain advantages in close combat. The main rivals of the Thracians in the arena were the Myrmilons. Sometimes the Thracians also fought the Hoplomakhs.

Secutor

Esedarius

Esedarius(essedarius) - a gladiator who fought on chariots. Its name comes from the word essedum, which the Romans called the chariots of the Celts. On one chariot there were at the same time one or two esedarii, in the second case one controlled the horses, the second was directly a fighter. The word essedarius was used not only in relation to gladiators, but also to the Celtic chariot warriors (in Gaius Julius Caesar in "Notes on the Gallic War"). Perhaps they appeared after Caesar's campaign in Britain. They are known only from descriptions (starting from the 1st century AD), their images have not been preserved, and nothing is known about their fighting style. It can be assumed that the esedarius rode a chariot along the edges of the arena and fired at foot opponents with a bow and threw darts at them. The Esedarii were usually armed with spears, bows and swords, sometimes with a small shield. Sharp blades could be attached to the wheels.

Cast

Cast or cestus (cestus) - fist fighter, boxer in the circus arena. The name comes from the ancient Roman boxing glove - Cast (cestus or caestus).

Krupelarii

Krupelarii, crupelarius (crupellarius) - a type of gladiator, whose armor consisted of a lamellar shell of Lorik segmentat, on a manic bracer on both hands and high greaves. The helmet was closed, with slits for the eyes and mouth, it resembled a medieval tophelm. In solid armor, similar to the armor of a medieval knight, the gladiator croupelarium was almost invulnerable to an opponent. The armament consisted of a scutum and a gladius. Heavy armor placed increased demands on candidates for crupelaria: staying in them required an extraordinary physical strength and endurance.

Tacitus describes the crupelaris as gladiators, recruited from the slaves of the Gauls, and equipped according to the traditions of the warriors of Lugdun Gaul. They took part in the uprising of the Trevers led by Florus and Sacrovir in 21:

Some of the slaves underwent gladiator training. Wrapped in iron after the custom of their people, these krupelarii, as they were called, were too clumsy for offensive action, however, were adamant in defense ... The infantry carried out a frontal attack. The Gallic ranks moved back. Armored warriors delayed the advance: they were invulnerable to swords and darts. However, the Romans, using axes and picks, destroyed the armor along with the owners, just like breaking a wall. Other gladiators were knocked to the ground with spears and tridents, and taking advantage of their helplessness, they put them to death.

Perhaps the historian was referring to the heavily armed Gaul gladiators, who were later transferred to the Myrmilons.

lakveary

lakveary, lakverary, lakveator(laquearius, laquerarius, laqueator) - a kind of retiarius, literally - "armed lasso", "lasso". The equipment consisted of a lasso (laqueus), a short spear and a dagger. Lakvearia appeared rather late. Their tactics repeated the tactics of the retiarius: they tried to catch the enemy with a lasso, and then hit with a dagger. The protective armor was identical - the sleeve - Manik and the galley pauldron.

Most gladiators had warriors and hunters as their prototype. Since the lasso was an unusual weapon for the Romans, it can be assumed that the equipment of this type of gladiator comes from the equipment of some barbarian tribe, possibly the Sagartian warriors from Ancient Persia.

In addition, it is suggested that the lacqueary could be a kind of pegniarium, that is, a circus jester, amused the audience with comic fights during breaks.

Pegniarius

Pegniarius(paegniarius) - a gladiator, designed to entertain the audience in between fights, when the fighters rested. The name comes from the Greek word παίγνιον ("toy", "toy", "comic performance"). Pegnarii were armed only with wooden rudisam swords (rudis) and whips. Protective equipment consisted of a wooden shield and wooden shields on the arms and legs instead of handrails and greaves, and instead of a helmet, they wrapped a cloth around their heads. Pegnarii made comic fights. Unlike real gladiators, they could live a long life: the famous epitaph to the pegniar Secundus, which reports that he lived 99 years, 8 months and 18 days.

Sagitarius

Sagitarius(sagittarius) - gladiator archer. He wore a conical helmet and a scaly shell of Lorica squamat, was armed with a bow (arcus) and arrows (sagittae).

Samnite

Samnite(Samnis, many - Samnites) - a type of gladiators of the Republic period. At one time it was the most popular of all. Represented the warriors of the Italian region of Samnia, conquered by the Romans in the III century BC. e. The equipment of this type of gladiator inherited the national Samnite. The armor of the Samnite consisted of a helmet with a visor, dressed with a crest or feathers (galea), a shield (oval or rectangular), leather greaves on the left leg (ocrea), a manica bracer and the tridisc carapace inherent in the Samnites. The Samnite was armed with a spear and a sword - a gladius.

Skisor

Scissor, scissor(scissor, set - scissores) or arbelas (arbelas, set - arbelai) - a gladiator, whose name comes from the word scindo ("I cut", "shred"). Another name - "arbelas" (see) is known only through one source (that is, hapax), so it is not possible to accurately identify them. Arbelas is remembered by the ancient Greek writer Artemidor Daldian in his treatise Oneirocritica (Snotlumach) as one of the gladiators that a person can dream of to show the prospects of marriage (arbelas in a dream, like a dimacher, portend a bad wife). Perhaps the second name of this type of gladiator comes from the ancient Greek ἄρβηλος, which meant a crescent-shaped shoemaker's knife, similar to the Eskimo ulu - this was associated with the characteristic, rather exotic weapon of this type of gladiators, which the skisor-arbelas held in his left hand instead of a shield. It consisted of a hollow top, worn on the hand, with a crescent-shaped blade (reliably sharpened on all sides). With this weapon, he inflicted minor, but very bleeding wounds on the enemy. In addition to this weapon, this gladiator was armed with a short gladius sword, which he held in his right hand. Skisor armor consisted of a closed helmet, chain mail (Lorika gamata) or lamellar armor of Lorika segmentata, a bracer on the right hand (manica) and short leggings (ocreae). The skisor's helmet was without rats and bars, with a crest in the form of a fish's fin. The skisor, like the dimacher, was not armed with a shield.

Scissor was one of the most heavily armed types of gladiators. In the arena, the skisors fought either among themselves or against the retiarius. That is why, apparently, the helmet of the skisora ​​was similar to the helmet of the secutor - a streamlined shape with a solid folding visor and small holes for the eyes.

Arbelas

Arbelas was one of the most heavily armed types of gladiators. The weight of weapons reached 22-26 kg. The name arbelas comes from the Greek name for a semi-circular knife, reminiscent of the weapon of this type of gladiator. Arbelas wears a short-sleeve chain mail, a closed helmet, a short sword, a manic leather bracer on his right hand, a tubular bracer with his weapon (arbelos) on his left hand, and short greaves on both legs.

Tertiary

Tertiary, tertiary(tertiarius) - a gladiator who fought the winner of a duel. The name comes from the word tertius - "third". Tertiarii could be "understudies" for the declared, but absent participants in the battle. They were also called "suppositories", "suppositions" (suppositicii) - "substitutes"

Other terms

• Venator(venator, literally - "hunter") - an artist of the ancient Roman circus, like a bestiary, specialized in baiting animals. However, the venator was not actually a gladiator, because he did not fight with animals, but only performed risky tricks with them, similar to a modern tamer.
• Gregory(gregarius) - beginner gladiator (from one year of training). Literally - "herd". The name comes from the fact that before the fights of experienced gladiators, group battles of beginners were often held.
• editor(editor) - a person who arranges gladiator fights at his own expense. An analogue of a modern sponsor or producer. Also called "munerarius" (munerarius).
• Lanista(lanista) - the owner of the gladiatorial school. He bought slaves for his school, taught them, and rented them out to an editor who played games. The profession of lanista was considered very profitable, but at the public graduation he was listed on a par with leno (owner of a brothel, “pimp”) as a “dealer in human meat”.
• Lorary(lorarius) - a circus attendant who urged on inexperienced gladiators or animals in the arena. The word lorarius itself comes from lorum ("leather belt", "whip"). In addition, the cleaning of the arena belonged to the duties of the loraries: they carried the dead and wounded gladiators, eliminated traces of blood, covering them with sand.
• Rudiarium(rudiarius) - gladiator, released. to freedom. The release could be a reward for unusual valor shown in the arena (for example, according to some sources, Spartacus was a rudiarium). The name comes from "rudis" (rudis) - a wooden sword, which was handed over to fired gladiators. Often rudiarii remained gladiators, in which case they were popular with the public. Those rudiaries who left fights could become trainers or judges in the arena.
• Tyro(tiro) is a gladiator who enters the arena for the first time.
• Triton(triton) - a student of the school of gladiators (up to 1-2 years of study).
• Veteran(veteranus) - a gladiator who fought several fights in the arena.

Rigid sports were part of the Etruscan funeral rite as human sacrifices.

The Romans adopted the Etruscan funeral rite and changed it over time, they stopped killing the participants in the mortal combat immediately, but forced them to fight with swords in their hands near the grave of the deceased, the weak died in the duel, and strong fighter remained alive, causing the delight of those present. The Romans first saw this cruel spectacle in 264 BC. e. in the bull market , where three pairs of gladiators fought at the wake of Brutus Pere, arranged by his sons. The spectacle seemed so unusual and remarkable to the Romans that this event was entered into the annals of Rome.

The connection between gladiatorial games and commemorations has never been forgotten, they were called "funeral games", and the official name is mumus ("duty"), the debt of the living towards the deceased.

In 105 BC. e. gladiatorial games were introduced to public spectacles in Rome . From now on, the state entrusted its magistrates with the care of arranging gladiatorial games, and they became the favorite spectacle, both in Rome and in the provinces of the Roman Empire. Caesar in 65 BC uh . arranged gladiator games, in which 320 pairs of gladiators took part. His enemies were frightened: not only these armed fellows were terrible, it was terrible that luxurious games became a sure way to win the favor of the people and secure votes in the elections. In 63 BC. uh . by the proposal Cicero passed a law , which forbade a candidate for magistrates for two years before the election to "give gladiators." No one, however, could forbid a private person to "give" them under the pretext of a commemoration for his relative, especially if the latter bequeathed to his heir to arrange games.

Depending on weapons and specifics their participation in fights distinguished the following types of gladiators:

Andabat (from the Greek word "άναβαται" - "raised, elevated") Andabata fighters were dressed in chain mail, like eastern cavalry (cataphracts), and helmets with visors without slits for the eyes. Andabats fought each other in much the same way as knights in medieval jousting tournaments.

Bestiary were armed with a dart or dagger, these fighters were originally not gladiators, but criminals (noxia), sentenced to fight with predatory animals, with a high probability of death of the sentenced. Later, bestiaries became well-trained gladiators, specializing in combat with various exotic predators using darts. The battles were organized in such a way that the beasts had little chance of defeating the bestiary.

Bustuary. These gladiators fought in honor of the deceased at ritual games during the funeral rite.

Velit - foot gladiators armed with a dart with a cord tied to it for throwing. Named after units of the early Republican Roman army.

dimacher (from the Greek "διμάχαιρος" - " carrying two daggers" ). They fought without a helmet and a shield with two daggers in each hand. They were dressed in a short soft tunic, their arms and legs were bandaged with tight bandages, sometimes they wore leggings.

Gaul. The fighters were equipped with a spear, a helmet and a small Gallic shield.

Goplomakh (from the Greek "οπλομάχος" - "armed fighter"). The fighters were dressed in quilted, trouser-like clothing for legs, possibly made of thick cotton or linen fabric, loincloth, belt, greaves. From the armor they put on the forearms (manika) of the right hand, and a helmet with fields and with a stylized griffin on the crest, decorated with a brush of feathers on top and single feathers on each side. From weapons they carried a very small round shield, made of one sheet of thick bronze, examples of shields have been preserved in Pompeii. The fighters were put up for fights against the Mirmillons or the Thracians.

Lakveary - "fighter with lasso". Lakvearii could be a type of retiarii that tried to catch their rivals with a lasso (laqueus) instead of a net.

Mirmillon - "mormylos" - "sea fish", fighters They wore a helmet with a stylized fish on a crest, armor for the forearm (maniku), a loincloth and a belt, leggings on the right leg, thick windings covering the top of the foot, and very short armor. The Mirmillons were armed with a gladius sword (40-50 cm long) and a large rectangular shield, like the legionnaires. They were put up for battle against the Thracians, Retiarii, sometimes also against the hoplomachi.

Pegnaria used a whip, a club and a shield, which was attached to the left hand with straps.

Provocateur - "applicant". The fighters were depicted wearing a loincloth, a belt, a long greave on the left leg, a maniku on the right arm, and a helmet with a visor, without brim and crest, but with feathers on each side. They were the only gladiators protected by a cuirass (cardiophylax), which was at first rectangular, then often rounded. The provocateurs were armed with a gladius and a large rectangular shield. Exhibited for battles with the Samnites or other provocateurs.

Retiarius - "fighter with a net." They p appeared at the dawn of the Roman Empire. The fighters were armed with a trident, a dagger and a net. In addition to a loincloth supported by a wide belt (balteus) and a large armor on the left shoulder joint, the retiarius had no clothing, including a helmet. Sometimes a metal shield (galerus) was used to protect the neck and lower face. There were retiarii who played female roles in the arena (“retiarius tunicatus”), which differed from ordinary retiarii in that they were dressed in a tunic. The retiarii usually fought with the secutors, but sometimes with the myrmillons.

Rudiarium - a gladiator who deserved liberation and was awarded a wooden sword - rudis, but decided to remain a gladiator. Not all rudiarii continued to fight in the arena, there was a special hierarchy among them: they could be trainers, assistants, judges, fighters, etc. Rudiarii fighters were very popular among the public, as they had vast experience and one could expect a truly addictive gladiatorial game.

Samnites - an ancient type of heavily armed fighters, which disappeared in the early imperial period, with its name indicates the origin of gladiator fights. Historical Samnites were influential union of italic tribes who lived in the Campania region south of Rome, against whom The Romans fought wars from 326 to 291 BC. e. The equipment of the Samnites was a large rectangular shield (scutum), a feathered helmet, a short sword, and possibly a greave on the left leg.

Secutor - this type of fighters was specially intended for fights with retiarii.

Sagittaria - mounted archers armed with a flexible bow capable of firing an arrow at a long distance.

Secutors were equipped with armor and weapons, large rectangular shields and gladiuses. Their helmet, however, covered the entire face, except for two holes for the eyes, in order to protect the face from the sharp trident of their rival. The helmet is round and smooth so that the net of the retiarius cannot catch on it.

Skissor (scissor, “one who cuts”, “cutting”) - a gladiator who was armed with a short sword (gladius) and instead of a shield had a cutting weapon - two small swords that had one handle or, put on an iron hollow rod with a sharp horizontal tip. With this cutting weapon, the skissor delivered blows that led to minor wounds of the opponent, but the wounds bled very much. Otherwise, the skissor was similar to a secutor, except for the additional protection of the right arm from the shoulder to the elbow, which consisted of many iron plates fastened together with strong leather cords. The helmet and protective ammunition for secutors and skissors were the same

Tertiarii also called "Suppositicius" - "replacing". Some competitions involved three gladiators. First, the first two fought each other, then the winner of this fight fought with the third, who was called tertiary - "third".

Thracians equipped with the same armor as the goplomakhs. The Thracians wore a great helmet covering the whole head and adorned with a griffin on the forehead or on the front of the crest, the Griffin was the symbol of the goddess of retribution, Nemesis. The Thracians wore a small round shield (parmula), and two large greaves. Their weapon was the Thracian curved sword-axe - sicca, about 34 cm long. Thracians fought with the Myrmillons or the Hoplomakhs.

Venators arranged demonstrative hunting for wild animals, without fighting them in close combat, like bestiaries. They performed animal tricks—putting their hand in a lion's mouth, riding a camel with lions on a leash by their side, making an elephant walk on a tightrope (Seneca Ep. 85.41). Venators were not gladiators, but their performances were part of the gladiator fights.

Ekvit ("horseman"). In Sanskrit: - horse. In early descriptions, these lightly armed gladiators were dressed in scaly armor, wearing a medium-sized round cavalry shield ( parma equestris), a helmet with fields, without a crest, but with two decorative tassels. In Roman times, they wore a forearm armor (manica) on their right arm, a sleeveless tunic (which distinguished them from other bare-chested gladiators), and a belt. Equites started the fight on horseback, but after they threw their spear (hasta), they dismounted and continued to fight with a short sword (gladius). Equits usually only fought other Equits.

Essedarius - "chariot fighter", (from the Latin name of the Celtic chariot - "esseda"). Essedaria are mentioned in many descriptions from the 1st century AD. e., may have been first brought to Rome by Julius Caesar from Britain.

Pregenaries in performed at the beginning of the competition to "warm up" the crowd. They used wooden swords (rudis) and wrapped cloth around the body. Their fights took place to the accompaniment of cymbals, pipes and water organs (hydraulis).

Why did Roman citizens become gladiators?
People who took the "gladiator's oath" were deprived of many rights of free citizens, including the right to their own lives, which depended on the outcome of the battle. Perhaps this freed the citizen from debts, and made it possible to get away from creditors, and even earn money if the audience liked the arena during the gladiator fight. Apparently, for many Roman citizens, gladiator fights were a good job - " shod, dressed, have a roof over your head and live on everything ready.

Gladiators had to live in special gladiatorial schools, where they studied the art of gladiatorial combat under the supervision of freedmen, that is, former gladiators. Naturally, there were doctors, masseurs, and cooks at their service, providing the gladiators with everything necessary for training and providing professional fighters.

A good incentive for a bold, dexterous and warlike gladiator was a high salary. Even the gladiator slaves had every right to a part of the reward for winning in the arena, they got the coins that the spectators threw into the arena during the battle. If a former gladiator, having been released, wished to remain in the arena, he received a generous reward. Emperor Tiberius offered a thousand gold coins to one of the freed gladiator slaves if he returned to the arena.

In the morning before the gladiator competition, hunting for wild animals (venatio) took place, in the afternoon the execution of criminals sentenced to death was carried out, they were thrown to be torn to pieces by animals. Before the fight, the gladiators dined at public banquets, together with local residents. Before the start of the gladiator fights, the fighters entered the arena, arranging a kind of parade to preliminarily tune the public and demonstrate their combat form, then the gladiator fights began.

The number of gladiator fights depended on the number of participating rivals. Usually the fights lasted until the end of the day, and each duel lasted an average of about ten to fifteen minutes.

A gladiatorial duel was a hand-to-hand fight of fighters with different weapons. After one of the fighters was injured or weakened, he threw the shield to the ground and raised his finger up (ad digitum), indicating his desire to surrender and stop the fight. The judge of the gladiatorial duel was obliged to intervene and stop the fight, leaving the fate of the defeated mumeraria (the owner of the gladiators). The decision he made sometimes depended on the opinion of the assembled public - he could spare (missio) the vanquished, or even grant freedom to one or both fighters, but such a release did not happen often, since this brought only losses to the mumerarius. Mumerary entered the arena and handed to the happy gladiator wooden sword (rudis), which meant that the gladiator was no longer a slave, but a free man.

Mumerarius could raise his thumb up (pollitz verso) or point it down - this meant the decision of the fate of the vanquished. The audience also expressed their opinion by showing the thumbs up, which meant "missio" (mercy), which allows the gladiator to return to the ludus and prepare for the next fight. Thumb, lowered down, meant that the winner of the battle must inflict on the defeated fighter death blow(coup de grace).

There was a double attitude towards male gladiators in Rome, they were loved and despised at the same time. Some citizens of Rome looked at the warlike gladiators as their idols, others treated them with contempt, like barbarians.

It was a shame for a noble Roman to participate in gladiator fights in the arena, and participation in military campaigns, battles and wars was considered military prowess.

Autocrats - Volunteer Gladiators could not live in gladiator schools, but take lessons from private trainers or visit special studios for training. Autocrats entered the gladiatorial arena quite rarely, two or three times a year.

There is an opinion that all gladiators were doomed to death, but in reality this is not so! Of course, gladiators died, including by decision of the public. However, not as often as it is commonly believed. It was very expensive to educate, teach martial arts, and maintain such a fighter. It was much more profitable to receive money from the audience for the performance of a good gladiator fighter than to pay for his burial.

Fighting in the ancient Roman arena was not exclusively a male affair. In 63 a.d. er. Emperor Nero issued a decree allowing free women to participate in gladiatorial tournaments. After him, Pozzuoli allows Ethiopian women to fight.

Women in the gladiatorial arena fought like men, and trained before the performance, like male gladiators. It is known that most of the gladiators in the Roman Empire were slaves, but some citizens voluntarily became gladiators and took an oath that they agreed "to be doomed, to be beaten, and to die by the sword" (uri, vinciri, uerberari, ferroque necari). By the end of the Roman Republic, about half of the Roman gladiators were volunteers - a huge number, considering that the battles took place not only in Rome, but also in many major cities of the country.

Women participated in fights, lived and died as fighters. The life of female gladiators was perhaps harder than that of men, daily physical training prepared them for possession various types weapons during a gladiator fight. Some Roman women, flouting all the limits of all decency, attended special studios, while others trained with their gladiator fathers.

Roman historian Tacitus with condemnation mentions women with a fairly high social status who participated in gladiator fights for the sake of entertainment, and considers these performances in the arena to be their shame. “This year the gladiatorial games were no less magnificent than in the past. However, many ladies from high society and people of senatorial rank have dishonored themselves by appearing in the arena. In general, Roman society considered women's gladiator fights reprehensible and unworthy!

The Roman historian Suetonius (c. 69 - 122 AD) spoke of gladiator fights involving women, under the emperor Domitian, who outdid Caligula, Nero and Heliogabal in his entertainment. Dio Cassius (ancient Greek Δίων ὁ Κάσσιος,) wrote that these gladiatorial fights of women were held by torchlight late at night, at the end of the whole gladiatorial performance.

Roman poet Statius in a poem about gladiator fights under the emperor Domitian, he reports that “Moors, women and pygmies” participated in the battles. “Sex, unfit for weapons, rivals men in battle! You'd think it was a gang of Amazons fighting."
According to the testimony of the Roman senator and historian Tacitus (c. 56 AD - 177 AD), even noble and rich women did not hesitate to appear in the arena, who wanted to perform in the gladiatorial arena and receive the laurels of the winners.

The Roman poet-satirist Decem Juvenal in Satire IV (55 AD - 127 AD), denouncing the vices of Roman society, caustically ridiculed female gladiators: and described the gladiatorial performance in detail:
“Have you heard that women need battle capes and oil to fight?
Have you seen the pieces of wood that they beat and crumble,
Skillful techniques punching them through with a sword or a spear?
It's about the girls who trumpet for the glory of Flora.
Or maybe they are preparing themselves to enter the arena for a real fight?
But is it proper for decent women to put their head in a helmet,
Despising your gender with which you were born?
They love men's things, but they don't want to be men
After all, small things (as they believe) delight their lives!
What "pride" does a husband feel at the sight of a market where
His wife seems to be for sale - in belts, shields and skins!
Listen to her grunts and moans as she toils hard, parrying and attacking;
Look at her neck being bent by the heavy helmet.
See how her legs are bandaged like tree trunks
Laugh as she drops her armor and weapons and reaches for the goblet.
How the daughters of our praetors and consuls are degrading!
Have you seen bare-breasted Amazons against wild boars at the games?
Isn't it more disgusting than gladiatorial girls and naked whores?

It is quite obvious that female gladiatorial fights are not fiction at all, but a fact captured in ancient literature and history! Archaeological finds confirm the existence of female gladiators in ancient Rome, inscriptions of a local magistrate from Ostia about the organization of female gladiator fights, burials female gladiators, bas-relief from Helicarnassus , which shows two women in secutor gear. They wear belts, greaves and plates on their arms. Each woman is armed with a sword and shield, but both fight with bare heads and bare chests. Their names are indicated under the images and confirm that they are women - one is called Amazonia, the other Achilles. The inscription at the top in Latin means "missae sunt", that is, both of them, or one of them, received an honorary exemption from the fight or the so-called "mercy" (missio) from the public watching the battle.

Legend and Achilles.

Achillia of Pergamon, a Roman province in Asia Minor, was the daughter of the 'castor' of Pergamon. The years of her life fell on the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ‘the Wise’. In 162 AD, when her life changed dramatically, she was about 20 years old.

Unlike her noble peers, Achille was an extraordinary girl, had a large, strong physique and a cocky character. Since her father's duties included organizing gladiator games for the people of Pergamon, his daughter was intimately familiar with the gladiator business. When she was 17 years old, she began to attend the city's 'ludum' (gladiator school), where she watched gladiator training and fierce fights. Achilles was no different from other noble women who were not indifferent to gladiators; they openly admired their courage and did not miss the gladiator fights. Achille began to take lessons in gladiatorial combat from the head of the school and former gladiator Partakos. In Ludum, she met the famous scientist and healer Claudius Galen, who studied human anatomy on the wounded and killed gladiators, and later became the personal physician of Emperor Aurelius. Galen was about thirty years old, and he fell in love with an attractive young girl. Galen did not dissuade Achilles from practicing gladiatorial art, but rather taught her the basics of human anatomy, showing the most vulnerable and painful points of the body for blows. Since Achilleia was born left-handed, Partakos taught her how to use this advantage when fighting right-handers.
This knowledge helped her to improve Achilles in the art of martial arts, she was preparing to really fight in the arena. While training with a wooden sword, Achille mastered the basics of the gladiatorial art, as well as some wrestling techniques. At the age of 19, she competed in a women's gladiatorial match for the first time. Her skill exceeded all expectations, she was a strong and beautiful girl.

A rival for Achilles was quickly found, it was Anahita, a prisoner captured in the Parthian army. She was a real warrior and fought in the gladiatorial arena of Smyrna. Anahita was so belligerent and fearless that she was nicknamed "Amazonia". Achilia and Amazonia soon had to meet in the gladiatorial arena. Well acquainted with the basics of the gladiatorial art, After intense training Achillia fought with the wild and ferocious Sarmatian warrior Amazonia, who fought like a tigress, but was wounded and lost the battle to a more experienced and stronger opponent. Achilles' gladiatorial career ended as abruptly as it began,

The emperor's wife, Faustina, famous for her waywardness and cruelty, loved gladiator fights and tried not to miss a single one. After the Roman victory over the Parthians in Armenia, Faustina toured the provinces and attended gladiatorial games in the cities of Asia Minor. In Halicarnassus, south of Pergamon, she saw the duel between Achilles and Anahita. The formidable and invincible Anahita struck Achilles with a deft blow, and she asked for ‘missio’ (mercy). The audience was in good spirits, and the defeated girl was given life. Faustina was amazed at how fiercely and skillfully the warlike female gladiators fought and ordered a sculpture carved in stone in memory of the brave warriors. A talented local sculptor completed the order, and the bas-relief depicting Achilles and Amazonia has survived to our time and reminds of these two female warriors.

The bas-relief of fighting female gladiators has preserved this duel for centuries "as an example to posterity."

Gladiator fights were banned in 400 AD when Christianity was adopted in the Roman Empire.

2017-11-12

Stories of gladiatorial combat have enthralled people for millennia. These warriors with swords and shields were forced to fight for their lives; their images tirelessly inspire the creators of books, paintings, films and television shows. However, as the fights became more popular, the crowd craved more spectacle. From now on, the sword and shield were not enough. The following are ten types of gladiators who used a wide variety of weapons in battles.

1. Bestiaries

Unlike other gladiators, bestiaries fought for their lives with animals, not their own kind. Especially for these battles, Roman emperors and senators brought exotic and strong animals from Africa and Asia (for example, lions, tigers, elephants and bears). They served as a symbol of wealth, and were also participants in the spectacles that were arranged for the crowd in the Colosseum and amphitheatres. Some animal species (like elephants) were meant to shock and entertain viewers who had never seen them before. Other animals were supposed to hunt people, and also acted as prey themselves.

There were two types of bestiaries: "damnatio ad bestias" (literally from Latin "tradition to beasts"; given to wild animals to be torn to pieces) and "venatio" ("hunters"). The first type were those who were sentenced to death. They were not considered gladiators and were generally members of the lower class in ancient Rome. Their death was the entertainment of the crowd. Sometimes one wild animal at a time could kill several hundred people.

"Hunters" trained and hunted animals. It was an integral part of their performances. We know very little about "venatio" because historians and chroniclers did not like to describe them. Unlike other gladiators, "hunters" were despised in ancient Rome. The most famous "venatio" was Karpophorus, who, according to history, killed over twenty animals with his bare hands in the arena of the Circus Maximus. Karpophorus also trained animals to kill, hunt, and even rape humans.

Some emperors also demonstrated their skill in killing animals, however, instead of recognition, they received only the contempt of the crowd. Nero fought animals in the arena, while Commodus "heroically" killed injured and immobile animals from the safety of an elevated platform. The latter caused extreme disapproval of the Senate.

2. Noxia

The Noxii were the lowest class in Roman society. They weren't even considered human. They included Christians, Jews, deserters, murderers and traitors. Noxius was not taken to the school of gladiators, and their appearance in the arenas, where they died in the most terrible ways, was, in a way, a punishment for the crimes committed. Noxii could be killed in several ways: first, they were torn apart by wild animals; second, they were tortured to death by gladiators who were blindfolded and instructed by the mob; the third - they acted as a target for which real gladiators hunted. The Noxii were typically loincloth-clad and unarmoured. Their weapons were a simple gladius (short sword) or a stick. The Romans took pleasure in killing noxii. This served as a reminder that everyone should know their place in the social hierarchy.

3. Retiarii

Which is better: speed or strength? Death by a thousand cuts or one blow? In ancient Roman times, the answer was unambiguous: what more power and armor, the better. That is why the retiarii were originally treated as the lowest type of gladiators. They had very little armor, so they had to fight using agility, speed, and cunning, as well as a net, a trident, and - in extreme cases - a small blade. The retiarii trained separately from the gladiators, who had swords and shields. They were considered effeminate and often ridiculed. The satirist and poet Decimus Junius Juvenal told the story of the petty aristocrat Gracchus, who not only caused general disfavor by becoming a gladiator, but also disgraced society by fighting as a retiarius. However, after a few centuries, the retiarii gained grace and became one of the main ones in the arena.

4. Secutors

The gladiators, who were of the secutor type, had to pursue and defeat the retiarii. The secutor had powerful armor: a huge shield, a sword and a round helmet that covered his entire face and had two tiny holes for his eyes. A typical fight between a secutor and a retiarius began with the latter withdrawing to a safe distance or - in some cases - climbing onto an elevated platform above the water, where a previously prepared supply of stones lay. The secutor (lat. secutor - pursuer) pursued the retiarius and tried not to get into his net or under a hail of stones. He was also afraid of the retiarius trident, which was used to keep the secutor from getting too close. The secutor was well armed, but he quickly tired under the weight of his armor.

Emperor Commodus fought as a secutor during the games; he had excellent armor and weapons, which guaranteed him victory. Another famous secutor was called Flamm, he was from Syria and fought in the arena in clothes characteristic of the inhabitants of the territory of Gaul. He took part in 34 fights and won 21 of them. Surprisingly, he was offered freedom four times, but each time he refused.

5. Equities

Equites were similar to the Roman cavalry, but they should not be confused. Roman cavalrymen were mainly represented by small aristocrats who held good positions in the senate and could even become emperors. In turn, the equites were renowned organizers of public spectacles. Performances in the Colosseum usually began with fights by equites to enliven the crowd with the agility and speed that these gladiators displayed. Sitting on horseback, they attacked each other with spears, and then jumped to the ground and fought with swords. They wore light armor, which contributed to greater agility and athleticism.

6. Provocateurs

As we now know, in ancient Rome, various types of gladiators could fight each other in the arena. Provocateurs, however, fought only with provocateurs. The reason was that they did not choose an opponent for them - they themselves challenged him to a fight. They fought to settle feuds between rival gladiatorial schools, or to increase their status by defeating a well-known rival. Each provocateur was armed like a Roman legionnaire: he had a rectangular shield, breastplate and helmet.

7. Women gladiators

Female gladiators tended to wear very little armor and were almost always bare-chested. In most cases, they did not even wear a helmet, so that everyone would know that a woman was fighting in the arena. Fights between female gladiators, who, by the way, were armed with a short sword and shield, were rare and were perceived as an innovation. Women could fight not only among themselves, but also with dwarfs in order to cause indignation and shock among the crowd. In some cases, women who had a high status in society could take part in gladiator fights. Their appearance in the arena was accompanied by loud scandals. Ultimately, female gladiator fighting was banned in 200 AD.

8. Gallus / Murmillo

The Gauls were one of the first gladiators who descended from the Gallic tribe that lived in Central and Western Europe. Most of them were prisoners who were forced to enter the arena to fight. The Gauls were well armed and looked like typical gladiators: they had a long sword, shield and helmet, but they wore traditional Gaulish clothes. The Gauls were less agile than other gladiators, so they relied on their strength to attack their opponents. They often fought with prisoners from enemy tribes.

After the Gauls made peace and became part of the Roman Empire, they began to be attributed to another type of gladiators, who were called murmillos. Murmillons still used a heavy sword and shield, but dressed like Roman soldiers and fought other murmillons, gladiators from enemy regions, and retiarii.

One of the most famous murmillons was named Marcus Attilius, who during his first fight defeated a gladiator from the personal army of Nero, Hilarus, and Lucius Felix. Both had more than a dozen victories on their account.

9. Samnites

The Samnites are also among the first gladiators, and they have much in common with the Gauls. They were also prisoners of war, but the region of Samnium (southern Italy) was considered their homeland. After the Romans defeated the Samnites, they forced them to participate in derisive ceremonial fights, which later turned into gladiator competitions. The Samnites wore traditional military clothing and fought with a sword and a rectangular shield. Their opponents, as a rule, were captured soldiers from tribes at war with Rome.

When Samnium became one of the provinces of the Roman Empire, the Samnites ceased to be a separate category. They joined the hoplomaches or murmillons, who wore the same clothes and had similar weapons.

10. Thracians

The most popular and well-known gladiator is Spartacus. He was a prisoner of war from a Thracian tribe living in Southeastern Europe. He rebelled against his enslavers, who forced him to fight in the gladiatorial arena. Ultimately, Spartacus was defeated, but the legend of him lives on to this day.

The Thracians, who had a round shield, a curved blade and a wide helmet with a griffin emblem, were perhaps the most popular of the early gladiators. They often fought the Gauls and the Samnites.

Just like today we root for different sports teams, emperors and senators had their favorites among the gladiators. Caligula, in particular, supported the Thracians and even killed a gladiator who defeated his favorite Thracian warrior. Another emperor, Domitian, had such contempt for the Thracians that he once threw one of the spectators to be torn to pieces by dogs. What did this poor fellow do? He suggested that the Thracian would most likely win the gladiator fight.