Gladiator of Ancient Rome was a professional fighter who specialized in specific weapons and fought in front of an audience in large, purpose-built arenas. Such arenas were built throughout the Roman Empire.

Gladiator fights began in 105 BC. NS. and had the status of an official competition until 404 AD. NS. The fighting continued, as a rule, until the death of one of the gladiators. That is why the life expectancy of such fighters was short. Although it was considered prestigious to be a gladiator, most of the fighters were slaves, freed slaves, or condemned. Without a doubt, gladiatorial combat was one of the most popular forms of entertainment in ancient Rome.

The Romans believed in many ways in the omens and traditions of their Italian ancestors, the Etruscans. For example, animal sacrifices were used to predict the future, symbolic fascia were used and gladiatorial fights were organized. The Etruscans associated this kind of competition with rituals of death, therefore gladiatorial battles had a certain religious significance for them. Although, the first private gladiatorial competitions took place in 264 BC. NS. and were organized in memory of the death of his father, later this reason was not taken into account for the organization of official battles. However, traces of religious origin were left by the tradition of finishing off defeated gladiators. In this case, the assistant had to strike the injured gladiator in the forehead. The attendant on duty had to wear a costume representing the costume of the god Hermes, who accompanied souls to the afterlife or "Charun". The presence of God's messenger and emperor, accompanied by priests and vestals, showed a kind of pseudo-religious trend in the battles.

Roman gladiatorial battles provided an opportunity for emperors and wealthy aristocrats to showcase their wealth to the population. The battles were staged in honor of military victories, visits of important officials, in honor of birthday celebrations, or simply to distract people from economic and political problems. In the eyes of the public, it was a kind of entertainment that literally became a matter of life and death. These extremely popular events took place in all the mass arenas of the Roman Empire. The Colosseum (Flavian amphitheater) was the largest of these. From 30 to 50 thousand spectators from all strata of Roman society flocked here for entertainment with bloody shows, where hunting for wild and exotic animals was arranged, executions of prisoners were carried out, religious martyrs were thrown into cages with lions, star shows were arranged, which were symbols of Roman virtue, honor and courage.

They used all their fighting skills, fighting under the motto "kill or be killed". A popular misconception is that gladiators greeted their emperor at the beginning of each battle with the lines: “Long live the emperor! We, who are going to die, greet you! " However, in reality, these words were spoken in honor of the prisoners and those killed in the initiated naval battles (Naumachia), which also took place in closed arenas on special occasions.

Most often the gladiators were slaves or criminals, also many prisoners of war were forced to perform in arenas. There were cases when, due to bankruptcy, aristocrats had to earn a living with a sword, for example, Sempronius, a descendant of the powerful Gracchian clan. It should be noted that before the adoption of the law Septimius Severus (Septimius Severus) in 200 AD. BC, women were allowed to fight as gladiators.

Throughout the empire, special gladiator schools... There were three such barracks in Rome itself. Capua is one of the barracks that was especially famous for its gladiators. Across the Empire of Risk, agents searched for potential gladiators to meet the ever-growing demand and fill schools that were supposed to have a huge turnover of fighters. The conditions in the schools were like a prison - small cages and shackles, however, the food was better (for example, sprouted barley), and students got the opportunity to receive better medical care, as it was an expensive investment for the school.

The winners of gladiatorial battles became the darlings of the crowd and were especially popular with women.

The term " Gladiator"Comes from Latin gladiators, by the name of their main weapon gladius or short sword. However, there was a wide variety of other weapons used in gladiatorial combat. Also, gladiators wore armor and helmets, which, in particular, were examples of great skill, were richly decorated with decorative ornaments, and the combs were decorated with feathers of ostriches and peacocks. The type of weapon and armor depended on what type the gladiator belonged to.

Types of gladiators

In ancient Rome, there were four main types of gladiators:

• Samnite view, was named after the great Samnite warriors who fought for Rome in the early years of the empire. Interestingly, the Romans used the words "gladiator" and "samnite" as synonyms. One of the best weapons of the Samnite were a sword or spear, a large square shield, and protective armor on the right arm and left leg;
• Thracian gladiator(Thracian) had a short curved sword (sika) and a very small square or round shield (parma), which was substituted to deflect the enemy's blows;
• gladiator Murmillon, also known as "Fishman", was outfitted in the form of a fish - a ridge was installed on the helmet. Like Samnite, he had a short sword and shield, but of his armor there were only linings on his arm and leg;
• at gladiator retiarius there was no helmet or armor, except for the padded shoulder pads. He had a net and a trident as a weapon. He tried to entangle his opponent with a net, and then stabbed with his trident.

Gladiators fought in certain combinations. As a rule, for contrast, pairs were selected that consisted of a slow and well-protected gladiator (Murmillon) against a fast and less protected gladiator (Retiarius).

There were other less common types of gladiators with different combinations of weapons and armor, the names of which changed over time. For example, Samnit and Gall became politically incorrect when these countries became allies. Other types of gladiators included archers, boxers, and the Bestiary (armed with a dart or dagger) who fought wild animals.

Those who lacked the courage to fight were forced to fight using leather whips and red-hot metal rods. However, amid the outraged roar of the crowd (from 40 thousand spectators) and the merciless attack of their opponent, many fought to the end. There were cases of refusal to fight. One of the most famous cases was the gladiatorial duel organized by Quintus Aurelius Symmachus in 401 AD. BC, when Germanic prisoners who were supposed to fight at the games, they instead hanged themselves in their cells, thereby leaving the Roman population without a sight.

If the defeated gladiator was not killed on the spot, then he applied for a pardon, lowering his weapon and shield and raising his finger. The enemy could show leniency, although then there was a risk of re-meeting in the arena, but this was considered good professional practice. If the emperor was present at the battles, then he made the decision, although the crowd tried to influence his judgments, waving rags and hand gestures - they raised their finger up and shouted "mitte!", Which meant "let him go"; thumbs down and shouted "iugula!" which meant "execute him."

The winners of fights, especially multiple ones, became the favorites of the crowd and images were created in honor of them on Roman buildings, and they were also popular among the female half of the population of Ancient Rome.

Graffiti of Pompeii provides a unique opportunity to find out how much gladiators were recognized by the public. They depict gladiators and the number of their victories, for example North 55. However, the average number of victories was much lower. Sometimes battles were held, when the winners of one battle fought with the winners of others, until only one survived. The winners were awarded material prizes, which included a prestigious victory palm and a silver platter of money. After many years of victories, the gladiator was granted freedom.

Perhaps one of the most famous gladiators was Spartacus, who led a rebellion of gladiators and slaves in 73 BC. NS.

A popular theory about the origin of gladiatorial combat is that it came from Etruria. But historical documents, such as frescoes, prove otherwise. The battle of gladiators originally had a sacred ritual meaning, and originated in Campania. The custom is interpreted in different ways. Some historians believe that the rite of killing the enemy was carried out over the coffin of a noble warrior in order to appease the gods. As a result of the withering away of tradition, the ritual turned into battles between two captive rivals. The sword was called gladius, which is where the name of the participants in the fight came from.

A variety of gladiators

Gladiators were divided into several types, each of which originally corresponded to one nation that was hostile to Rome. The largest amount of information about retiaries. The retiarius is armed with a net tied to his wrist and a massive trident called a fuscina. In addition, the retiarius usually had a dagger.

Another type of gladiators - myrmillon - is almost the exact opposite of a retiary. Armed with a heavy scutum shield and gladius, the myrmillon was a formidable rival. Myrmillon's weapon - the gladius sword was usually tied to the hand so as not to be dropped during the battle. A warrior with a medium shield having a monstrous weight - Goplomakh was armed with a short dagger. The shield acted not only as a defense, but could also be used for an attack, so that the need for a large amount of weapons disappeared.

The next type of gladiator is the provocateur. His weaponry was a sword with a straight blade, like a legionary. Most often, gladiators of this type fought against each other, and in exceptional cases their opponent was a fighter of a different type.

Equity armament is interesting. Equit is a lightly armed rider. From the beginning of the battle, their weapons were spears with a tip in the form of a leaf. If the Equit was knocked out of the saddle or his spear broke, the fight continued with the short sword.

Less known are such types of gladiators as andabat (a warrior in a deaf helmet without slits for the eyes), velit, sagittarius and samnite. Few historical sources report that the Sagittarius fought with a powerful bow, consisting of several parts. The laquerarius was similar to the retiarius, with the difference that instead of a net he had a lasso and a short spear.

A variety of weapons

Despite the fairly diverse weapons of gladiators, the most famous is the gladius sword. Its blade reached 70 cm in length and about 5 cm in width. The cutting-stabbing effect of the blade was due to a longitudinal stiffening rib and a pronounced edge. After the beginning of the reign of Augustus, the sword of this type was forgotten. He was replaced by the Mainz gladius, which was actively used until the middle of the 1st century AD. The massive sword weighed about 1.5 kg, and its length reached 70-75 cm. Later weapons were a Pompeian gladius. Lightweight with 45 cm length and 45-degree edges.

The daggers of gladiators had the appearance of a blade with a wide diamond-shaped blade. The handle was made of bone. The length of the dagger often reached 30 cm. Less information has come about thin daggers with a curved blade. Long and thin, they had a uniform curve along their entire length.

As common as the gladius was, the gladiator's spear was. The length of the weapon reached 2.3 m. Most often, equits and venators (warriors who fought with wild animals) used spears. Despite many finds of three-bladed finally, historians suggest that the pommel of the gladiator's spear had a rounded leaf or lancet shape. The three-bladed tip was most likely part of a broken retiarius trident.

Speaking about the weapons of gladiators, one cannot ignore training swords, which are of great importance and symbols of victory - rudis. Rudis was a symbol of victory and the only chance to save life. Recognized by the crowd, the most courageous and strongest gladiators could be freed by receiving a wooden sword. The liberated warriors were called rudiaries.

Despite numerous excavations, only the most common types of gladiatorial weapons have survived to us.

Initially, people sentenced to death, who had nothing to lose, became gladiators. The statutes of ancient Rome made it possible to fight for freedom and, in case of victory, it was possible to exchange life for the finances gained in battle. Then ordinary people joined the gladiatorial battles, who desperately wanted to achieve fame and material well-being. In order to become one of the fighters, they had to take an oath and become "legally dead." Every person who decided on this was fed free of charge high-calorie food and provided timely treatment. The sponsors of the fights spent a lot of money on the maintenance of gladiators, so it was often very expensive on the show where the fight was fought. There are cases when bloody gladiatorial battles of women were organized.

Gladiator schools

In ancient Rome, there were even special institutions in which gladiators were trained in combat. They could belong to both the state and a private person. The manager of such an institution was called "lanista". In his submission was a staff of teachers teaching fencing, weaponry, as well as cooks, doctors and even a funeral team. The daily routine and discipline at the gladiatorial school was extremely strict.

In some of these institutions, they taught and fights with wild animals. Such fighters took much longer training. They were taught the training, the habits of various types of animals. Elephants, lions, tigers, bears, panthers, leopards died in the ring along with people.

Gladiator classification

Ancient Rome was full of gladiator fights, which were first organized during church holidays, and then became an integral part of almost everyday entertainment of citizens. There was even a classification of fighters by specialization.

1. Andabats - gladiators who fought on the principle of cavalry competitions, without the right to see the opponent.

2. The bestiaries were originally criminals sentenced to combat with animals. The convicts had virtually no chance to survive. Subsequently, these gladiators began to receive training. Armed with darts or, fighters began to often win in such fights.

3. Bustarii - gladiators who fought in memory of those killed at the ceremonial games.

4. Velites are walking gladiators who fought with darts, small daggers and shields.

5. The Venators were not gladiators, but were present at every battle. Entertained the audience using animals. They performed tricks: they thrust their hands into the mouth of a lion, rode a camel.

6. Dimachers in the process of struggle had 2 swords with them. Helmet and shield were not allowed.

7. The Gauls were armed with a spear, a small shield and a helmet.

8. Lakeware. They were faced with the task of catching the enemy with a lasso.

9. Murmillons. On the crest of their helmet was a stylized fish. Armed with a short sword and shield.

10. Noxia - criminals who were released to fight each other. Sometimes they were blindfolded, given one or another weapon. The judge or someone from the crowd was allowed to prompt the fighters. However, most often the audience shouted over the instructions and the fighters could not hear anything.

11. Pregenaria. They were the first to speak, “warming up” the crowd. These gladiators wrapped their bodies in rags and used wooden swords.

12. Provocateurs - armed with gladius and gladiator shields, were the only ones allowed to defend the body with a cuirass.

13. Rudiaries - fighters who deserve freedom, but decided to stay in the ranks of gladiators. They were awarded with a wooden sword. They became coaches, judges or assistants.

14. The Sagittarii fought on horseback and were armed with a bow.

15. Skissors - fighters armed with weapons resembling scissors.

16. Tertiarius is a substitute player who came on as a substitute if, for some reason, one of the gladiators could not participate in the battle. In other battles, the Tertiarii fought the winner of the main competition.

17. Equites spent the first half of the battle on horseback, and after the spear with which they were armed was thrown, they continued to fight on their feet with short swords.

18. Cestus - fighters who fought using only cestus - an old analogue of brass knuckles.

The tradition of gladiatorial fights on the territory of Ancient Rome was preserved for more than half a millennium.

Gladiators are Roman slave fighters who have fought to the delight of the public in the Roman Empire for nearly 700 years.

Gladiators were slaves, prisoners of war, or criminals, and sometimes ordinary citizens. These comrades, not old and well-developed, ended up in gladiator schools, where they underwent military training under the guidance of the governor. Gladiators worked every day with trainers and teachers who taught them how to use a variety of weapons. Also chefs, doctors and getters were at the gladiators' service.

Gladiators lived much better than ordinary slaves, but this advantage was nothing more than an ordinary investment. The better the gladiator lived, the better he fought, won, therefore, he brought more profit.

Some gladiators could achieve liberation from slavery, but there were few of them. These fighters received a rudis - a wooden sword, a sign of liberation from slavery. Often they became paid trainers in their own people (gladiator schools).

Fights. (wikipedia.org)

Gladiator fights usually ended with the death of one of the opponents or the defeat of a group of gladiators, if it was a group duel. If one of the losers survived, then their fate was decided by the audience. The well-known gesture - thumbs down or up - decided the fate of the defeated. However, it is believed that the gestures were different: fingers clenched into a fist - life, thumb set aside - death.

Roman gladiators were divided into types, and each of them was armed in its own way and was used in different battles. Often gladiators were armed as representatives of one of the peoples conquered by Rome, or as some fictional characters. However, despite all this, the weapons of the gladiators did not differ in variety.

Gladiators of Rome: interesting facts

1) The life of a gladiator was highly valued. It took a lot of time, effort and money to educate an excellent fighter, and such a fighter brought a huge income to its owner.

2) Gladiators were considered the lowest "caste" even among slaves, and becoming a gladiator is a huge shame for a Roman citizen. But it was not uncommon for an ordinary citizen of Rome to become a gladiator - sometimes from complete despair, sometimes from his own whim.

3) In all the films, the gladiator looks like a bodybuilder, but this was not the case. Two to three months before the battles, the gladiators were fed abundantly and fatty foods, since a thick layer of fat protected the internal organs.

4) There is a myth that gladiators are the best fighters in Rome. Fighters - yes, but not soldiers. They did not know how to fight in an organized manner in a formation, like legionnaires, did not know the tactics of formations, etc. This was the trouble with Spartacus. Gladiators could be good bodyguards, which was often the case, but soldiers were not.

It was previously believed that the custom of gladiatorial fighting came to Rome from Etruria. However, the frescoes from Campania2, where the custom was of a religious and ceremonial nature, as well as the testimony of Titus Livius3, allow us to lean towards the Campanian version of the origin of the gladiatorial games. The origin of this custom is explained in various ways; there is reason to believe that in ancient times it was customary to kill captured enemies over the coffin of a deceased noble warrior, sacrificing them to the gods of the underworld. Subsequently, probably, these cruel sacrifices were transformed into ritual battles of people armed with a sword (gladius). The first gladiators were called bustuaries (from "bustum" - the fire on which the body of the deceased was burned) 4, which shows the original connection of the gladiatorial games (munera) with the funeral celebrations in honor of which the earliest recorded Roman spectacles were organized in 264 BC. dedicated to the funeral of Lucius Junius Brutus 5. Over time, gladiatorial games began to be arranged on other occasions; They also entered the program of shows during some of the holidays.

The earliest surviving amphitheater ruins date back to the reign of Sulla and were built in colonies of veteran warriors, mainly in Campania. The most famous amphitheater was built in Pompeii, colonized around 80 BC. army veterans, whose presence and traditions K. Welch attributed to the primary factor in the development of gladiatorial culture in this territory7. It is quite true that interest in gladiatorial fights in the provinces was mainly supported by three groups of society: legionnaires, veterans and the romanized urban elite, as evidenced primarily by the ruins of amphitheaters, as well as the finds of small plastic with gladiatorial themes in legion fortresses and colonies8. The interest of the legionnaires in gladiatorial games was stimulated not so much by the thirst for bloody spectacles as by practical interest. From time to time, the training of the legionnaires took place not on the territory of the legion camp (campus), but in the gladiatorial schools (ludus). In 50 BC. Julius Caesar planned to build a ludus gladiatorium near his legion base in Ravenna, 9 not only for the entertainment of his warriors, but to train them there with the help of experienced instructors (doctores gladiatorum). Thus, it is clear that there was a close interaction between gladiatorial and military cultures before all in a single method of training sword fencing, and in addition, in the use of some similar types of defensive weapons. In this regard, it is interesting to consider one of the elements of gladiatorial weapons - the helmet, as the most representative example of a close relationship with army fashion. The structural similarity of some gladiatorial helmets with those widespread in the 1st century BC is noted. AD in the Roman army with Weisenau-type infantry helmets. In addition, one can trace the similarity of their decor with the ceremonial cavalry helmets of the same time. Unfortunately, it is not possible to carry out such a comparative analysis over several centuries. The earliest representative sources - gladiatorial reliefs - appear only in the era of the early principate, and the latest mosaics depicting gladiatorial weapons, more or less clearly, date back to the beginning of the 4th century. AD Not all of them, however, depict helmets in as much detail as would be needed for a comparative analysis with real specimens at our disposal, which almost all belong to the 1st century BC. AD Thus, only for this century there is a sufficient volume of both iconographic and archaeological material. The absence of any pictorial sources and material finds for the republican period does not allow us to fully imagine what types of helmets were used by gladiators during the time of Spartacus, and forms a lacuna in the line of development of the gladiator's helmet. Nevertheless, a number of signs indicate a genetic relationship between gladiatorial helmets with wide brim and the Boeotian helmet, which appeared in Greece in the 5th century. BC Boeotian helmet was widespread not only in Boeotia, but throughout Greece, as well as throughout the Hellenistic space, up to Bactria. In addition to his numerous images, several copies have been found. The earliest finds were made in Athens10 and Mesopotamia (on the Tigris River) 11 and date back to the 4th century. BC. Since the time of Alexander the Great, cheek pads and a plume appear on Boeotian helmets, and since the 2nd century. BC. the forehead part of the crown begins to be decorated with volutes, 12 which will be typical for gladiator helmets in the future.

Ancient Rome gladiator weapons

Figurative sources show a wide variety of types of helmets used by gladiators: from the Weisenau-type infantry helmet equipped with forehead volutes13 to completely closed ones reminiscent of medieval topfhelm14 (Table I-III). Some types of gladiatorial helmets are presented exclusively in figurative sources. Moreover, on very narrowly localized groups of monuments. For example, I know of at least four images of a rather unusual helmet with a crest that goes from the back of the head to the chin (a bas-relief and relief from Hierapolis of Phrygia15, a figurine from the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge16 and a monument from Tatarevo in a museum in Sofia17). All of these images originate from the east of the Roman Empire, suggesting a local variety of Sector helmets18. The variety of depicted types of helmets deserves consideration in a separate large work, where it will be necessary to thoroughly consider all the images at our disposal, and show which of them really reflect real-life helmets, and which are artistic fiction and the author's fantasy. With all this in mind, this article will focus on mainly archaeological material. Archaeological finds are few and far between cities on the coast of the Gulf of Naples, destroyed by one of the worst catastrophes in human history, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in August 79 AD. NS. More than 75% of the finds come from the gladiatorial barracks in Pompeii, where cavalier Rocco de Alcubierre has been excavating for the Spanish king Charles III since 1748. In 1764, a young Spanish engineer Francesco La Vega joined the excavations, who was the first to sketch the objects found and keep a neat diary of excavations19. Before that, the main style of excavation in Pompeii was treasure hunting. There is evidence that La Vega began excavating the gladiator's barracks in the same 1764, and they ended only when the building was completely cleared out in 1800. In 1766/7. workers were clearing the room where they found perfectly preserved gladiatorial weapons preserved by volcanic ash and pumice. To this must be added scattered finds in Herculaneum and its surroundings (helmets from the Louvre21 and Berlin Antiquarium22).

Other finds, not related to the disaster in the Gulf of Naples, come from the Roman borderlands. A tinned crown of a helmet without decor was found in Hawkedon (Suffolk, England) 23, a visor in the form of a lattice comes from Aquincum (Budapest) 24, a griffin-shaped pommel was found at the site of a border fortress of a German limes25, a cheek piece was found in Xanten26. In addition to these finds, in the museums of the world there are several more helmets identified with the weapons of gladiators. They are in the collections of the Museum at Castle San Angelo in Rome27, the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto28, the John Woodman Higgins Armory29 and the Detroit Institute of the Arts30.

Typology

Most of the helmets have rather wide fields, according to the shape of which M. Junkelmann divides them into two types31. The first, earlier type (type "Chieti G"), has horizontal brims along the entire perimeter of the helmet. In the second type ("Pompeii G"), the fields are horizontal only from the sides and back, and in front they are sharply raised above the forehead, forming a kind of curved visor. The latter type is a transitional variant to a later type, which is no longer represented among the finds in Pompeii. This type M. Junckelmann calls "Berlin G". It has very low (at neck level) horizontal margins at the back and sides, and a clear framing of the visor grille with almost vertical margins in the front. Added to this are the types "Provocateur G" and "Sector G".

However, M. Junckelmann's typology relies exclusively on design features and does not take into account the design features of helmets, which in some cases was standard. All this allows us to make the typology of gladiatorial helmets more detailed, not only to highlight the features, but also, using iconographic material, to try to associate this or that version of the helmet with a certain type of gladiator.

All archaeological finds can be divided into three types with subtypes.

Type I (Pl. V, 2; VII, 1 - 4). The crown resembles an army helmet of the Weisenau type and in most cases is richly ornamented with chased figures. A visor plate is riveted to the forehead of the crown, as on infantry helmets. The lower edge of the frontal part of the crown has semicircular cutouts, which, together with the cheek pads attached to the pins, which had the same semicircular cutouts on their upper edges, formed a solid visor with round eye cutouts, which were covered by round overhead lattice eyecups. The back of the head is located almost at right angles to the crown and is completely analogous to the back of the Weisenau type helmets.

Type II (Plate V, 3; X, 3). The crown is also similar to the Weisenau-type infantry helmets and lacks any decoration. It is also similar to the crown of helmets of the first type, but it does not have semicircular arcuate notches on the lower edge of the frontal part, and, in addition, there is a low longitudinal ridge. The visor consists of two halves (cheek pads) attached to the crown on the side hinges and fastened together after putting on the helmet using a centrally located vertical plate-pin. Eye slots are small, unprotected circular cutouts that significantly limit the view. A clear drawback of this type is poor air exchange, since the visor is devoid of any other openings except for the eye slits, and this is clearly not enough. Type III (Table V, 1). The crown has wide curved brims, to which the cheek pads are attached with the help of hinges, and to them, in turn, the lattice eyecups are attached with the help of pins. According to the shape of the crest, visor and decor, helmets of this type can be divided into three subtypes.

Option A (Table VIII, 1-3). The crown is decorated with volutes and mascarone of the forehead. On the sides, in the places where the volutes end, there are plume mounting bushings in the form of a bird's feather. The crest of the helmet ends with the image of the head of a griffin. According to iconographic sources, this type of helmet is associated with a Thracian gladiator (Thrax) (a bronze statuette of a Thracian from the former collection of F. von Lipperheide32 - now in Hanover - gladiatorial reliefs from the tomb of Luzi Storax, National Museum, Chieti33).

Variant B (Table VIII, 4; IX, 1 - 4; X, 1, 2). The crown of the helmet is richly decorated with chased images of mythological plots, various kinds of trophies, scenes of the capture of barbarians, scenes of triumphal processions. The crest of the helmet is sometimes also decorated. On figurative sources such helmets are worn by a gladiator-mirmillo (bronze statuette of a gladiator from Lillebon, Museum of Antiquity in Rouen [Table III]; a bronze statuette from the Berlin Antiquarium34) or hoplomachus (statuette from the Berlin Antiquarium35).

Option C (Table VI; X, 4). It is represented by one single copy in the Berlin Antiquarium36, but in some cases it is depicted in iconographic sources (for example, a relief from the Berlin Antiquarium37). It differs from the previous version by a large bend of wide brim, a visor in the form of lattices all over the face, as well as a massive ridge. It is unfortunate that there is no guaranteed origin (Herculaneum or the Adriatic Sea is named as the place of the find38), but comparison with items from Pompeii and Herculaneum shows a different quality of the Berlin helmet. Unlike the almost entirely ornamented gladiatorial weapons in the Archaeological Museum in Naples and in the Louvre, the light-dark contrast of Berlin's weaponry is reminiscent of an elegant checkerboard pattern. This effect was carried out by tinning the brass of the helmet and scraping again to obtain a grid of rasters in every other square of the tin layer. In these places, the initially golden, and now gray-green, patinated surface of the tin is visible. Appearing, probably in the second quarter of the 1st century. AD, helmets of this variant remained popular until the end of gladiature. Judging by the iconographic monuments, in the western part of the Empire during this time they were practically unchanged, while in the Hellenistic East there were some modifications of such helmets (for example, with reduced fields in front).